Plurk paste

NOTES
INTRODUCTION: Stardust and Sunshine theory of roots: Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, “Empedocles,” accessed February 21, 2025, https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/empedocles.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Only four elements: Gilbert B. Forbes, Human Body Composition: Growth, Aging, Nutrition, and Activity (Springer-Verlag, 1987).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT how much to eat to meet their needs: Curt P. Richter, “Self-Selection of Diets,” Journal of Pediatrics 20, no. 2 (1942): 230–236, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(42)80135-3; T. H.
Moran and J. Schulkin, “Curt Richter and Regulatory Physiology,” American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 279, no. 2 (2000): R357— R363, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.2.R357.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT They instinctively seek out: David Raubenheimer and Stephen J.
Simpson, Eat Like the Animals: What Nature Teaches Us About the Science of Healthy Eating (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2020); Frederick D. Provenza, Nourishment: What Animals Can Teach Us About Rediscovering Our Nutritional Wisdom (Chelsea Green, 2018).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT our environment becomes us: John E. Blundell and Andrew J. Hill, “Hunger and Appetite,” Companion Encyclopedia of Psychology, ed.
Andrew M. Colman (Routledge, 1994).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT obesity—now defined as excess fat: Francesco Rubino, David E.
Cummings, Robert H. Eckel, et al., “Definition and Diagnostic Criteria of Clinical Obesity,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 13, no. 3 (2025): 221–262, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00316-4. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Obesity rates began rising: B. A.
Swinburn, G. Sacks, K. D. Hall, et al., “The Global Obesity Pandemic: Shaped by Global Drivers and Local Environments,” Lancet 378, no.
9793 (August 27, 2011): 804–814, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT doubled in more than seventy countries: GBD 2015 Obesity Collaborators, “Health Effects of Overweight and Obesity in 195 Countries over 25 Years.” New England Journal of Medicine 377, no. 1 (July 6, 2017): 13–27, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1614362.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT all age groups experienced the surge: A. Rodgers, A. Woodward, B.
Swinburn, and W. H. Dietz, “Prevalence Trends Tell Us What Did Not Precipitate the US Obesity Epidemic,” Lancet Public Health 3, no. 4 (April 2018): e162—e63, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30021-5.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT deaths of more than a half million people: “Why Good Nutrition Is Important,” Center for Science in the Public Interest, accessed January 29, 2025, https://www.cspinet.org/eating-healthy/whygood-nutrition-important.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT life expectancy has recently been decreasing: Joel Achenbach, Dan Keating, Laurie McGinley, Akilah Johnson, and Jahi Chikwendiu, “An Epidemic of Chronic Illness Is Killing Us Too Soon,” Washington Post, October 3, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/interactive/2023/american-life-ex pectancy-dropping/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than a trillion dollars: Tara O’Neill Hayes and Rakeb Asres, “The Economic Costs of Poor Nutrition,” American Action Forum, March 9, 2022, https://www.americanactionforum.org/research/the-economic-costs-of-po or-nutrition/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT above $6 trillion as of 2023: “2024 Global Wellness Economy Monitor,” Global Wellness Institute, accessed January 29, 2025, https://globalwellnessinstitute.org/industry-research/2024-globalwellness -economy-monitor/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the most durable and effective means: L. Sjostrom, “Review of the Key Results from the Swedish Obese Subjects (SOS) Trial—a Prospective Controlled Intervention Study of Bariatric Surgery,” Journal of Internal Medicine 273, no. 3 (March 2013): 219–234, https://doi.org/10.1111/joim.12012.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an estimate from the 1950s: Max Wishnofsky, “Caloric Equivalents of Gained or Lost Weight,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 6, no. 5 (1958): 542–546, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/6.5.542; N. Wishnofsky, “Caloric Equivalents of Gained or Lost Weight,” Metabolism 1, no. 6 (1952): 554–555, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/13002077.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT diet calories usually creep back upward: David Polidori, Arjun Sanghvi, Randy J. Seeley, and Kevin D. Hall, “How Strongly Does Appetite Counter Weight Loss? Quantification of the Feedback Control of Human Energy Intake,” Obesity 24, no. 11 (2016): 2289–2295, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21653.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the 3,500-calorie rule drastically overpromised: Kevin D. Hall, Gary Sacks, Dhruva Chandramohan, et al., “Quantification of the Effect of Energy Imbalance on Bodyweight,” Lancet 378, no. 9793 (2011): 826–837, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60812-X; Biing-Hwan Lin, Travis A. Smith, Jong-Ying Lee, and Kevin D. Hall, “Measuring Weight Outcomes for Obesity Intervention Strategies: The Case of a Sugar-Sweetened Beverage Tax,” Economics & Human Biology 9, no. 4 (2011): 329–341, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ehb.2011.08.007; Kevin D.
Hall and Carson C. Chow, “Why Is the 3500 Kcal per Pound Weight Loss Rule Wrong?,” International Journal of Obesity 37, no. 12 (2013): 1614, https://doi.org/10.1038/ijo.2013.112.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT abandon the 3,500-calorie rubric: Kevin D. Hall, Steven B. Heymsfield, Joseph W. Kemnitz, et al., “Energy Balance and Its Components: Implications for Body Weight Regulation,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 95, no. 4 (2012): 989–994, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.036350.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT still permeates policy: Travis A. Smith, Biing-Hwan Lin, and Jonq-Ying Lee, “Taxing Caloric Sweetened Beverages: Potential Effects on Beverage Consumption, Calorie Intake, and Obesity,” USDA Economic Research Service, July 2, 2010, https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pubdetails?pubid=44734; E. Guth, “Counting Calories as an Approach to Achieve Weight Control,” Journal of the American Medical Association 319, no. 3 (January 16, 2018): 225–226, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2017.21355; K. D. Hall, D. A.
Schoeller, and A. W. Brown.
“Reducing Calories to Lose Weight,” Journal of the American Medical Association 319, no. 22 (2018): 2336–2337, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.4257.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “one of the major figures of twenty-first-century nutrition science”: Chris van Tulleken, UltraProcessed People: The Science Behind Food That Isn’t Food (Norton, 2024).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT most influential studies in nutrition: Alice Callahan, “Why, Exactly, Are Ultraprocessed Foods So Hard to Resist? This Study Is Trying to Find Out,” New York Times, July 30, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/07/30/well/eat/ultraprocessed-foods-dietstudy.html; Nicholas Florko, “How a Government Scientist Is Pushing to Supersize Research into Ultra-Processed Foods,” STAT, September 11, 2024, https://www.statnews.com/2024/09/11/ultra-processed-foodshealth-nih-r esearch-kevin-hall-controlled-trials/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT living in the toxic food environment: Kelly D. Brownell and Katherine Battle Horgen, Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry, America’s Obesity Crisis, and What We Can Do About It (McGraw-Hill, 2004).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 1: The Biggest Losers, the Slowest Metabolisms “power to increase metabolism to very high levels”: Maurice L. Tainter, Windsor C. Cutting, and A. B. Stockton, “Use of Dinitrophenol in Nutritional Disorders: A Critical Survey of Clinical Results,” American Journal of Public Health 24, no. 10 (1934): 1045–1053, https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.24.10.1045.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 100,000 Americans had reportedly taken DNP: Eric Colman, “Dinitrophenol and Obesity: An Early Twentieth-Century Regulatory Dilemma,” Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 48, no. 2 (2007): 115–117, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.03.006.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a foundational study in nutrition science: Ancel Benjamin Keys, Josef Brožek, Austin Henschel, et al., The Biology of Human Starvation (University of Minnesota Press, 1950), 852.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT built on fasting research: Francis Gano Benedict, A Study of Prolonged Fasting (Carnegie Institution of Washington, 1915).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT banned after being deemed “extremely dangerous”: Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, Toxicological Profile for Dinitrophenols, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, August 2021, https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/toxprofiles/tp64.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT over sixty related deaths: Johann Grundlingh, Paul I. Dargan, Marwa El-Zanfaly, and David M.
Wood, “2,4-Dinitrophenol (DNP): A Weight Loss Agent with Significant Acute Toxicity and Risk of Death,” Journal of Medical Toxicology 7, no. 3 (2011): 205–212, https://doi.org/10.1007/s13181-011-0162-6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “I was one of the many”: Malcolm Gladwell, host, Revisionist History, podcast, “The Department of Physiological Hygiene,” Pushkin Industries, September 22, 2022, https://www.pushkin.fm/podcasts/revisionist-history/the-department-of-ph ysiological-hygiene.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT As they ate less and lost weight, they became so weak: Keys et al., Biology of Human Starvation, 853.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT urinating blood: Edward Wyatt, “On ‘The Biggest Loser,’ Health Can Take Back Seat,” New York Times, November 24, 2009, https://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/25/business/media/25loser.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In 1995, he served as a defense witness: Bernard Weinraub, “Charlie Sheen’s Doctor Wants You to Know He’s No Hollywood Quack,” STAT, December 16, 2016, https://www.statnews.com/2015/12/16/robert-huizenga-biggest-loser-tv-d octor/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “maybe the most damaging television show ever”: Aubrey Gordon and Michael Hobbes, hosts, Maintenance Phase, podcast, “The Biggest Loser,” January 19, 2021, https://maintenancephase.buzzsprout.com/1411126/episodes/7353850-t he-biggest-loser; Sophie Gilbert, “The Retrograde Shame of The Biggest Loser,” The Atlantic, January 29, 2020, https://www.theatlantic.com/culture/archive/2020/01/the-retrograde-sham e-of-the-biggestloser/605713/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Over more than six years: Nicolas D. Knuth, Darcy L. Johannsen, Robyn A. Tamboli, et al., “Metabolic Adaptation Following Massive Weight Loss Is Related to the Degree of Energy Imbalance and Changes in Circulating Leptin,” Obesity 22, no. 12 (2014): 2563–2569, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20900; Darcy L. Johannsen, Nicolas D.
Knuth, Robert Huizenga, et al., “Metabolic Slowing with Massive Weight Loss Despite Preservation of Fat-Free Mass,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 97, no. 7 (2012): 2489–2496, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2012-1444; Jennifer C. Kerns, Juen Guo, Erin Fothergill, et al., “Increased Physical Activity Associated with Less Weight Regain Six Years After ‘The Biggest Loser’ Competition,” Obesity 25, no. 11 (2017): 1838–1843, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21986; Erin Fothergill, Juen Guo, Lilian Howard, et al., “Persistent Metabolic Adaptation 6 Years After ‘The Biggest Loser’ Competition,” Obesity 24, no. 8 (2016): 1612–1619, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21538; Kevin D.
Hall, “Diet Versus Exercise in ‘The Biggest Loser’ Weight Loss Competition,” Obesity 21, no. 5 (2013): 957–959, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.20065.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the Biggest Losers drastically reduced their calorie intake: Hall, “Diet Versus Exercise in ‘The Biggest Loser’ Weight Loss Competition.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The starving Minnesotans lost far less: Keys et al., Biology of Human Starvation; Leah M. Kalm and Richard D. Semba, “They Starved So That Others Be Better Fed: Remembering Ancel Keys and the Minnesota Experiment,” Journal of Nutrition 135, no. 6 (2005): P1347—P1352, https://jn.nutrition.org/article/S0022-3166(22)10249-X/fulltext.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT They were now burning several hundred fewer calories per day: Johannsen, Knuth, Huizenga, et al., “Metabolic Slowing with Massive Weight Loss.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT findings that have since been corroborated: Catia Martins, Jessica Roekenes, Saideh Salamati, Barbara A. Gower, and Gary R. Hunter, “Metabolic Adaptation Is an Illusion, Only Present When Participants Are in Negative Energy Balance,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 112, no. 5 (2020): 1212–1218, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa220.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT exercise was key: Kerns, Guo, Fothergill, et al, “Increased Physical Activity Associated with Less Weight Gain.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT another trend that’s been observed: Thomas A. Wadden, Rebecca H.
Neiberg, Rena R. Wing, et al., “Four-Year Weight Losses in the Look AHEAD Study: Factors Associated with Long-Term Success,” Obesity 19, no. 10 (October 2011); 1987–1998, https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2011.230; Victoria A. Catenacci, Lorraine G.
Ogden, Jennifer Stuht, et al., “Physical Activity Patterns in the National Weight Control Registry,” Obesity 16, no. 1 (2008): 153–161, https://doi.org/10.1038/oby.2007.6; John M. Jakicic, Bess H. Marcus, Wei Lang, and Carol Janney, “Effect of Exercise on 24-Month Weight Loss Maintenance in Overweight Women,” Archives of Internal Medicine 168, no. 14 (2008): 1550–1559, https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.168.14.1550; S. Kayman, W. Bruvold, and J. S. Stern, “Maintenance and Relapse After Weight Loss in Women: Behavioral Aspects,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 52, no. 5 (1990): 800–807, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/52.5.800; Deborah F.
Tate, Robert W. Jeffery, Nancy E. Sherwood, and Rena R. Wing, “Long-Term Weight Losses Associated with Prescription of Higher Physical Activity Goals. Are Higher Levels of Physical Activity Protective Against Weight Regain?,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 85, no. 4 (2007): 954–959, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.4.954; J. Graham Thomas, Dale S. Bond, Suzanne Phelan, James O. Hill, and Rena R. Wing, “Weight-Loss Maintenance for 10 Years in the National Weight Control Registry,” American Journal of Preventative Medicine 46, no. 1 (2014): 17–23, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2013.08.019. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Overfeeding studies show: Lester B.
Salans, Edward S. Horton, and Ethan A. H. Sims, “Experimental Obesity in Man: Cellular Character of the Adipose Tissue,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 50 (1971): 1005–1011, https://dm5migu4zj3pb.cloudfront.net/manuscripts/106000/106570/JCI71 106570.pdf; Rudolph L.
Leibel, Michael Rosenbaum, and Jules Hirsch, “Changes in Energy Expenditure Resulting from Altered Body Weight,” New England Journal of Medicine 332, no. 10 (1995): 621–628, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199503093321001.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Unlike people in other weight loss studies: J. M. Amatruda, M. C. Statt, and S. L. Welle, “Total and Resting Energy Expenditure in Obese Women Reduced to Ideal Body Weight,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 92, no. 3 (1993): 1236–1242, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI116695; Martins et al., “Metabolic Adaptation Is an Illusion.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT may have led to the surprising, long-term effect on metabolism: K. D.
Hall, “Energy Compensation and Metabolic Adaptation: ‘The Biggest Loser’ Study Reinterpreted,” Obesity 30, no. 1 (2022): 11–13, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.23308.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT These ideas were popularized: Herman Pontzer, Burn: New Research Blows the Lid Off How We Really Burn Calories, Stay Healthy, and Lose Weight (Penguin Random House, 2021).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the front page of The New York Times: Gina Kolata, “After ‘The Biggest Loser,’ Their Bodies Fought to Regain Weight,” New York Times, May 2, 2016, https://www.nytimes.com/2016/05/02/health/biggest-loser-weight-loss.ht ml.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT abnormally low energy expenditure: Eric Ravussin, Stephen Lillioja, William C. Knowler, et al., “Reduced Rate of Energy Expenditure as a Risk Factor for Body-Weight Gain,” New England Journal of Medicine 318, no. 8 (1988): 467–472, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198802253180802.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Julia’s own story: Julia Belluz, “A New Biggest Loser Study Shows Why It’s So Hard to Lose Weight and Keep It Off,” Vox, May 2, 2016, https://www.vox.com/2016/5/2/11564958/biggest-loser-weight-loss-gain.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT while experts around the world: Darcie Loreno, “Dr. Marc Explains ‘Biggest Loser’ Study & How to Boost Metabolism,” Fox 8 News, May 10, 2016, https://fox8.com/morning-show/dr-marcexplains-new-biggest-loser-study -answers-your-questions-live/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Or, as another New York Times article put it: Taffy Brodesser-Akner, “Losing It in the Anti-Dieting Age,” New York Times Magazine, August 2, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/08/02/magazine/weight-watchers-oprah-l osing-it-in-the-antidieting-age.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT He wrote a letter to the scientific journal: A. Kuchnia, R. Huizenga, D.
Frankenfield, J. R. Matthie, and C. P. Earthman, “Overstated Metabolic Adaptation After ‘The Biggest Loser’ Intervention,” Obesity 24, no. 10 (October 2016): 2025, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21638.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT responded to Dr. H’s letter: K. D. Hall, J. C. Kerns, R. Brychta, and N. D.
Knuth, “Response to ‘Overstated Metabolic Adaptation After “the Biggest Loser” Intervention,’ ” Obesity 24, no. 10 (October 2016): 2026, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21635.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 2: The Fire of Life volunteering for a study: Julia Belluz, “What I Learned About Weight Loss from Spending a Day Inside a Metabolic Chamber,” Vox, September 4, 2018, https://www.vox.com/2018/9/4/17486110/metabolism-diet-fast-weight-los s.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the ancient quest: Graham Lusk, Nutrition (Hoeber, 1933).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT breathing and bodily heat were essential: David C. Frankenfield, “On Heat, Respiration, and Calorimetry,” Nutrition 26, no. 10 (2010): 939–950, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2010.01.002.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT life derived from pneuma: Lusk, Nutrition, 10.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Born into an aristocratic Parisian family: Arthur Donovan, Antoine Lavoisier: Science, Administration, and Revolution, Cambridge Science Biographies Series (Cambridge University Press, 1996).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT he built one of the most impressive laboratories: Frederic Lawrence Holmes, Lavoisier and the Chemistry of Life: An Exploration of Scientific Creativity, Wisconsin Publications in the History of Science and Medicine (University of Wisconsin Press, 1985).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In his spare time: Joe Jackson, A World on Fire: A Heretic, an Aristocrat, and the Race to Discover Oxygen (Viking, 2005); Walter B. Gratzer, Terrors of the Table: The Curious History of Nutrition (Oxford University Press, 2005).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In his palatial lab: Marco Beretta, interview with Julia Belluz, October 4, 2021.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an airtight brass mask: Jean-Pierre Poirier, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, 1743–1794 (Pygmalion, 1993), 303; W. R. Aykroyd, Three Philosophers (Lavoisier, Priestley and Cavendish) (Greenwood Press, 1970), 115.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Through the tube: Lewellys F. Barker, R. G. Hoskins, and Herman Otto Mosenthal, eds., Endocrinology and Metabolism, Presented in Their Scientific and Practical Clinical Aspects by Ninety-Eight Contributors (Appleton, 1922), 26.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT rubber-coated taffeta suit: Poirier, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, 1743–1794, 302–303.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The harder he worked: Aykroyd, Three Philosophers, 116.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ice calorimeter: Frankenfield, “On Heat, Respiration, and Calorimetry,” 940.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “breathing animals are actual combustible bodies”: Poirier, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, 1743– 1794, 301.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Fire taken from the heavens”: Barker, Hoskins, and Mosenthal, Endocrinology and Metabolism, 25.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT carbon-hydrogen fuel: Thomas Steele Hall, History of General Physiology, 600 B.C. to A.D. 1900 (University of Chicago Press, 1975), 163.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The site of combustion: Johann Peter Prinz, “Lavoisier’s Experimental Method in His Research on Human Respiration,” in Lavoisier in Perspective, ed. Marco Beretta (Abhandlungen und Berichte, 2005); J.
B. West, “The Collaboration of Antoine and Marie-Anne Lavoisier and the First Measurements of Human Oxygen Consumption,” American Journal of Physiology. Lung Cellular and Molecular Physiology 305, no.
11 (2013): L775—L785, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplung.00228.2013.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “perish, just as the lamp goes out”: Poirier, Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier, 1743–1794, 302.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT it was the first attempt: Harold Brewer Hartley, “Antoine Laurent Lavoisier, 26 August 1743–8 May 1794,” Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences 189, no.
1019 (1947): 427–456, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1947.0050.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT common to every living thing: Nick Lane, Transformer: The Deep Chemistry of Life and Death (Norton, 2022); David G. Nicholls and Stuart J. Ferguson, Bioenergetics, 4th ed. (Academic Press, 2013).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT how cells transform the energy: Lane, Transformer.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT lightning bolt: Nick Lane and William Martin, “The Energetics of Genome Complexity,” Nature 467 (2010): 929–934, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature09486. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 100 revolutions per second: Hiroshi Ueno, K. Kinosita Jr., and M.
Yoshida, “ATP-Driven Stepwise Rotation of FoF1-ATP Synthase,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 102, no. 5 (February 1, 2005): 1333–1338, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0407857102.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 50 kilograms of ATP and ADP: Stephan Wilkens, “Chemistry of ATP Synthesis,” in Wiley Encyclopedia of Chemical Biology, ed. Tadhg P.
Begley (Wiley, 2009).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT NASA scientists: G. V. Levin and P. A. Straat, “Life on Mars? The Viking Labeled Release Experiment,” Biosystems 9, no. 2–3 (September 1977): 165–174, https://doi.org/10.1016/0303- 2647(77)90026-0. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 3: Protein, the “Only True Nutrient” “Liver King is having liver”: Liver King, “Liver King Putting More Weights,” YouTube, November 29, 2023, https://www.youtube.com/shorts/RuVpwjMHjtM.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an American social media influencer: Madeleine Aggeler, “In the Court of the Liver King,” GQ, May 5, 2022, https://www.gq.com/story/in-the-court-of-the-liver-king-brian-johnson-anc estralsupplements.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “ancestral tenets”: “The Ancestral Tenets,” Liver King, accessed January 28, 2025, https://www.liverking.com/ancestral-tenets/eat#tenets_nav.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “build muscle easily”: “Liver King Protein Powder Whole Feast,” Liver King, accessed January 28, 2025, https://www.liverking.com/protein#ingredients.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “science and mechanisms”: “Liver King Protein Powder Whole Feast.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In 1853: Kenneth J. Carpenter, Protein and Energy: A Study of Changing Ideas in Nutrition (Cambridge University Press, 1994), 85.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT on the battlefield: Elizabeth Neswald, David F. Smith, and Ulrike Thoms, Setting Nutritional Standards: Theory, Policies, Practices, Rochester Studies in Medical History (University of Rochester Press, 2017).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The secret of rapid weight gain”: Arnold Schwarzenegger and Douglas Kent Hall, Arnold: The Education of a Bodybuilder (Simon and Schuster, 1977).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Google searches for “high-protein diet”: “Catering to Protein-Rich Diets Is a Tasty Business,” The Economist, March 6, 2025, https://www.economist.com/business/2025/03/06/catering-to-proteinrichdiets-is-a-tasty-business.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT $28 billion: “Protein Supplements Market Share & Industry Trends, 2025–2032,” Fortune Business Insights, February 24, 2025, https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/protein-supplementsmarket-10 6511.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT worldwide olive oil market: “Olive Oil Market Size, Share, Trends & Growth Report, 2025–2032,” Fortune Business Insights, February 24, 2025, https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industryreports/olive-oil-market -101455.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Liebig was born in 1803: W. H. Brock, Justus von Liebig: The Chemical Gatekeeper (Cambridge University Press, 1997), 2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “year without a summer”: Ashley Strickland, “Why a Volcanic Eruption Caused a ‘Year Without a Summer’ in 1816,” CNN, September 17, 2019, https://edition.cnn.com/2019/09/17/world/tambora-eruption-year-withoutsummerscn/index.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT led Liebig in 1822 to Paris: Brock, Justus von Liebig, 28.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT dark hair and piercing eyes—promptly landed a job: Edmund Knowles Muspratt, My Life and Work (John Lane, 1917); E. Patrick Munday III, Sturm und Dung (1803–1873): Justus von Liebig and the Chemistry of Agriculture, PhD diss., Cornell University, 1990.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT invented the contemporary research lab: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 46; J. S. Fruton, “The Liebig Research Group—a Reappraisal,” Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 132, no. 1 (March 1988): 1–66, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11621444.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT did so at a rate then unrivaled: Kamminga Harmke and Andrew Cunningham, The Science and Culture of Nutrition, 1840–1940 (Clio Medica, 1995).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT replace whatever got used up: George A. Bray, The Battle of the Bulge: A History of Obesity (Dorrance, 2007), 218.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “insensible perspiration”: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT all food contains: William Prout, “On the Ultimate Analysis of Simple Alimentary Substances; With Some Preliminary Remarks on the Analysis of Organic Bodies in General,” in Abstracts of the Papers Printed in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 2 (1815– 1830), 324–326.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT became known as the “macronutrients”: Barbara Orland, “The Invention of Nutrients—William Prout, Digestion and Alimentary Substances in the 1820s,” Food & History 8, no. 1 (January 2010): 149–168, https://doi.org/10.1484/J.FOOD.1.100977; Elmer Verner McCollum, A History of Nutrition; the Sequence of Ideas in Nutrition Investigations (Houghton Mifflin, 1957).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT became sickly and promptly died: Kenneth Carpenter, “A Short History of Nutritional Science: Part 1 (1785–1885),” Journal of Nutrition 133, no. 3 (March 2003): 638–645, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022316622156579; R. D. Semba, “Paris in the Time of François Magendie,” World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 104 (2012): 20–40, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/282028354_Paris_in_the_time _of_Francois_Magendie. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT seemingly identical chemical composition of protein: Brock, Justus von Liebig, 183.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT long-sought-after “only true nutrient”: Carpenter, “A Short History of Nutritional Science: Part 1 (1785–1885).” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In his book Animal Chemistry: Justus von Liebig, Animal Chemistry: or, Chemistry in Its Applications to Physiology and Pathology, ed. William Gregory, 3rd ed. (Taylor and Walton, 1846).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT borrowing from Mulder’s work: Graham Lusk, “A History of Metabolism,” in Endocrinology and Metabolism, Presented in Their Scientific and Practical Clinical Aspects by Ninety-Eight Contributors, ed. Lewellys F.
Barker, R. G. Hoskins, and Herman Otto Mosenthal (Appleton, 1922), https://archive.org/details/endocrinologymet03barkrich/page/2/mode/2up .
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In 1865, Liebig launched: Mark Finlay, “Quackery and Cookery: Justus von Liebig’s Extract of Meat and the Theory of Nutrition in the Victorian Age,” Bulletin of the History of Medicine 66, no. 3 (Fall 1992): 404–418, https://www.jstor.org/stable/44442675.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Liebig pushed the product: Justus von Liebig, “Liebig’s Extract of Meat,” Lancet (October 21, 1865): 469; Justus von Liebig, “On the Nutritive Value of ‘Extractum Carnis,’ ” Lancet (November 11, 1865): 547; Justus von Liebig, “On The Nutritive Value of ‘Extractum Carnis,’ ” Lancet (December 9, 1865): 651; Justus von Liebig, “On the Nutritive Value of Different Sorts of Foods,” Lancet (February 6, 1869): 186–187; Justus von Liebig, “On the Nutritive Value of Different Sorts of Foods,” Lancet (March 13, 1869): 357–358.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the scientific and medical communities embraced Liebig’s ideas: Finlay, “Quackery and Cookery.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “perfectly invaluable”: Nicholas Bannister, “Lingering Taste of Liebig’s Cube,” The Guardian, June 19, 1999, https://www.theguardian.com/business/1999/jun/19/8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT other researchers ran their own studies: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 59–75.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT savage colleagues: W. B. Gratzer, Terrors of the Table: The Curious History of Nutrition (Oxford University Press, 2005). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “cocks crowing on a dunghill”: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 228–229.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one of his students lamented: Carl von Voit, quoted in Frederic L.
Holmes, introduction to von Liebig, Animal Chemistry, cviii.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT continued to set the research and policy agendas: G. J. Leigh, The World’s Greatest Fix: A History of Nitrogen and Agriculture (Oxford University Press, 2004).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “example of a standard”: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 226.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a diet so deficient in niacin: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 224.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT When Wilbur Atwater: Carpenter, Protein and Energy, 105, 118.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “meat famine”: Nicola Twilley, Frostbite: How Refrigeration Changed Our Food, Our Planet, and Ourselves (Penguin Press, 2024), 81.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT fifteen million in 1870: Twilley, Frostbite, 79.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It’s worth remembering”: Twilley, Frostbite, 82.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 5.5 billion cubic feet: Twilley, Frostbite, 6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Only at the end of his life: Lusk, “A History of Metabolism,” 53–54. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one of the world’s largest cattle farmers: Brock, Justus von Liebig, 229–233. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “every household”: Finlay, “Quackery and Cookery.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The result is the amino acids: Leigh, The World’s Greatest Fix.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “protein turnover”: Stephen Welle, Human Protein Metabolism (Springer, 1999).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an $11,000-per-month supply: Teddy Amenabar and Anahad O’Connor, “TikTok ‘Liver King’ Touted Raw Organ Meat Diet. He Also Took Steroids,” Washington Post, December 6, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/wellness/2022/12/06/liver-king-steroids -apology-ancestraldiet/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT supplements alone had very little impact: Julia Belluz, “The Vox Guide to Getting Huge,” Vox, January 20, 2015, https://www.vox.com/2015/1/20/7558995/how-to-build-muscle.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Diets with higher protein have been shown to reduce energy intake: E.
A. Martens, S. G.
Lemmens, and M. S. Westerterp-Plantenga, “Protein Leverage Affects Energy Intake of HighProtein Diets in Humans,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 97, no. 1 (January 2013): 86– 93, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.046540; E. A. Martens, S. Y. Tan, M. V.
Dunlop, R. D.
Mattes, and M. S. Westerterp-Plantenga, “Protein Leverage Effects of Beef Protein on Energy Intake in Humans,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 99, no. 6 (June 2014): 1397–1406, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.078774; D. S. Weigle, P. A. Breen, C. C.
Matthys, et al., “A High-Protein Diet Induces Sustained Reductions in Appetite, Ad Libitum Caloric Intake, and Body Weight Despite Compensatory Changes in Diurnal Plasma Leptin and Ghrelin Concentrations,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 82, no. 1 (July 2005): 41–48, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn.82.1.41; A. K. Gosby, A. D.
Conigrave, D. Raubenheimer, and S. J.
Simpson, “Protein Leverage and Energy Intake,” Obesity Reviews 15, no. 3 (March 2014): 183– 191, https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12131. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Barbara Rolls covertly varied the protein content: A. D. Blatt, L. S. Roe, and B. J. Rolls, “Increasing the Protein Content of Meals and Its Effect on Daily Energy Intake,” Journal of the American Dietetic Association 111, no. 2 (February 2011): 290–294, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2010.10.047.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the higher the protein in the meal: T. L. Fazzino, A. B. Courville, J. Guo, and K. D. Hall, “Ad Libitum Meal Energy Intake Is Positively Influenced by Energy Density, Eating Rate and HyperPalatable Food Across Four Dietary Patterns,” Nature Food 4, no. 2 (February 2023): 144–147, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00688-4.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT protein and the full complement of amino acids: C. D. Gardner, J. C.
Hartle, R. D. Garrett, L. C.
Offringa, and A. S. Wasserman, “Maximizing the Intersection of Human Health and the Health of the Environment with Regard to the Amount and Type of Protein Produced and Consumed in the United States,” Nutrition Reviews 77, no. 4 (April 1, 2019): 197–215, https://doi.org/10.1093/nutrit/nuy073.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The RDA is based on research: National Research Council (US) Subcommittee on the Tenth Edition of the Recommended Dietary Allowances, Recommended Dietary Allowances, 10th ed. 2, Definition and Applications (National Academies Press, 1989), https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK234926/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT health benefits up to—but not beyond—that point: S. M. Phillips, S.
Chevalier, and H. J. Leidy, “Protein ‘Requirements’ Beyond the RDA: Implications for Optimizing Health,” Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism 41, no. 5 (May 2016): 565–572, https://doi.org/10.1139/apnm-2015-0550; D. A. Traylor, S. H. M.
Gorissen, and S. M. Phillips, “Perspective: Protein Requirements and Optimal Intakes in Aging: Are We Ready to Recommend More Than the Recommended Daily Allowance?,” Advances in Nutrition 9, no. 3 (May 1, 2018): 171–182, https://doi.org/10.1093/advances/nmy003.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT healthy aging: J. Mustafa, R. C. Ellison, M. R. Singer, et al., “Dietary Protein and Preservation of Physical Functioning Among Middle-Aged and Older Adults in the Framingham Offspring Study,” American Journal of Epidemiology 187, no. 7 (July 1, 2018): 1411–1419, https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwy014; A. V. Ardisson Korat, M. K. Shea, P.
F. Jacques, et al., “Dietary Protein Intake in Midlife in Relation to Healthy Aging—Results from the Prospective Nurses’ Health Study Cohort,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 119, no. 2 (February 2024): 271–282, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.11.010.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Most Americans eat more than the RDA: C. E. Berryman, H. R. Lieberman, V. L. Fulgoni III, and S. M.
Pasiakos, “Protein Intake Trends and Conformity with the Dietary Reference Intakes in the United States: Analysis of the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2001–2014,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 108, no. 2 (August 1, 2018): 405–413, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy088.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT care homes and hospitals: S. Morris, J. D. Cater, M. A. Green, et al., “Inadequacy of Protein Intake in Older UK Adults.” Geriatrics (Basel) 5, no. 1 (February 12, 2020), https://doi.org/10.3390/geriatrics5010006; H.
Miyata, K. Matsumura, T. Takase, et al., “Clinical Importance of Protein Intake in Hospitalized Elderly Patients with Heart Failure,” Circulation Reports 7, no. 1 (January 10, 2025): 47–54, https://doi.org/10.1253/circrep.CR-24-0067.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT young men could adapt and even thrive: McCollum, A History of Nutrition.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than fifty species: Raubenheimer and Simpson, Eat Like the Animals.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT experiments that spanned decades: Curt P. Richter, “Self-Selection of Diets,” Journal of Pediatrics 20, no. 2 (1942): 230–236, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0022-3476(42)80135-3; T. H. Moran and J.
Schulkin, “Curt Richter and Regulatory Physiology,” American Journal of Physiology. Regulatory, Integrative and Comparative Physiology 279, no. 2 (2000): R357—R363, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpregu.2000.279.2.R357.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The term nutritional wisdom”: Raubenheimer and Simpson, Eat Like the Animals, 37.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in case you’re wondering: S. M. Solon-Biet, A. C. McMahon, J. W.
Ballard, et al., “The Ratio of Macronutrients, Not Caloric Intake, Dictates Cardiometabolic Health, Aging, and Longevity in Ad Libitum-Fed Mice.” Cell Metabolism 19, no. 3 (March 4, 2014): 418–430, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2014.02.009. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT specific carbohydrate and fat appetites: C. M. Hill, E.
Qualls-Creekmore, H. R. Berthoud, et al., “FGF21 and the Physiological Regulation of Macronutrient Preference,” Endocrinology 161, no.
3 (March 1, 2020), https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqaa019.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT FGF-21 travels to the brain: S. Q. Kim, R. A. Spann, M. S. H. Khan, et al., “FGF21 as a Mediator of Adaptive Changes in Food Intake and Macronutrient Preference in Response to Protein Restriction,” Neuropharmacology 255 (September 1, 2024): 110010, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropharm.2024.110010.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT protein humans eat has remained remarkably stable: H. R. Lieberman, V. L. Fulgoni, S. Agarwal, S. M. Pasiakos, and C. E. Berryman, “Protein Intake Is More Stable Than Carbohydrate or Fat Intake Across Various US Demographic Groups and International Populations,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 112, no. 1 (July 1, 2020): 180–186, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa044.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A trade-off between lifespan and reproduction: Raubenheimer and Simpson, Eat Like the Animals, 59–71.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Scientists recently discovered: E. Long and J. Zhang, “Evidence for the Role of Selection for Reproductively Advantageous Alleles in Human Aging,” Science Advances 9, no. 49 (December 8, 2023): eadh4990, https://doi.org/10.1126/sciadv.adh4990.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT whose restriction has been shown to increase longevity: D. Wanders, K.
Hobson, and X. Ji, “Methionine Restriction and Cancer Biology,” Nutrients 12, no. 3 (March 3, 2020), https://doi.org/10.3390/nu12030684.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Some observational research: S. Naghshi, O. Sadeghi, W. C. Willett, and A. Esmaillzadeh. “Dietary Intake of Total, Animal, and Plant Proteins and Risk of All Cause, Cardiovascular, and Cancer Mortality: Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies,” British Medical Journal 370 (July 22, 2020): m2412, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.m2412; A. Fotouhi Ardakani, J.
Anjom-Shoae, O. Sadeghi, C. S. Marathe, C. Feinle-Bisset, and M.
Horowitz, “Association Between Total, Animal, and Plant Protein Intake and Type 2 Diabetes Risk in Adults: A Systematic Review and Dose-Response Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies,” Clinical Nutrition 43, no. 8 (August 2024): 1941– 1955, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.07.001.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 4: Flex Fuel: Carbs, Fat, Calories Googling “what is the perfect food”: Andrew Taylor, “In Honour of Dr John McDougall—My Thoughts and Stories,” Spud Fit, YouTube, July 1, 2024, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=Uvm79V28BLI; Andrew Taylor, “Dr McDougall Potato Diet Talk at the Advanced Study Weekend,” Spud Fit, February 17, 2020, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GbHJ8s-AK9A.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The Starch Solution: John A. McDougall and Mary A. McDougall, The Starch Solution: Eat the Foods You Love, Regain Your Health, and Lose the Weight for Good! (Rodale, 2012).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT McDougall used case studies: Jeff Nelson, “Potatoes: The Perfect food—John McDougall, MD,” VegSource, YouTube, July 3, 2011, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0PgBL8f87FE.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Butter is back”: Mark Bittman, “Butter Is Back,” New York Times, March 25, 2014, https://www.nytimes.com/2014/03/26/opinion/bittman-butter-is-back.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT generalized panic about all fat: Julia Belluz, “Is Eating Fat Really Bad for You? Here’s What the Science Says,” Vox, April 13, 2016, https://www.vox.com/2015/11/24/9782098/dietary-fatsaturated-fat-goodor-bad.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT potatoes were singled out: D. Mozaffarian, T. Hao, E. B. Rimm, W. C.
Willett, and F. B. Hu, “Changes in Diet and Lifestyle and Long-Term Weight Gain in Women and Men,” New England Journal of Medicine 364, no. 25 (June 23, 2011): 2392–2404, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1014296.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT large increases in fiber intake: Diane Quaglia and Patricia Felt-Gunderson, “Closing America’s Fiber Intake Gap,” American Journal of Lifestyle Medicine 11, no. 1 (July 7, 2016): 80–85, https://doi.org/10.1177/1559827615588079.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT book called Spud Fit: Andrew Taylor and Mandy van Zanen, Spud Fit: A Whole Food, Potato-Based Guide to Eating and Living (Spud Fit, 2019).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ten winters and thirteen summers: Buddha Linkola, “Rare Footage of Vilhjalmur Stefansson the Arctic Explorer (1957),” YouTube, June 21, 2018, https://youtu.be/gT7u2GlEfxs; Vilhjalmur Stefansson, “Adventures in Diet,” Harper’s Monthly Magazine, November 1935; Kurt Kleiner, “Meats, No Shoots, No Leaves,” New Scientist 182, no. 2449 (May 29, 2004).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT nutrition experiment involving Arctic explorers: Clarence Lieb, “The Effects on Human Beings of a Twelve Months’ Exclusive Meat Diet,” Journal of the American Medical Association 93, no. 1 (July 6, 1929): 20–22.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT meat-only diet for a year: Walter S. McClellan and Eugene F. Du Bois, “Prolonged Meat Diets with a Study of Kidney Function and Ketosis,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 87, no. 3 (July 1, 1930): 651–668.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the results of the study: Lieb, “The Effects on Human Beings of a Twelve Months’ Exclusive Meat Diet.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cut the carbs in their diet: Robert C. Atkins, Dr. Atkins’ Diet Revolution: The High Calorie Way to Stay Thin Forever (McKay, 1972).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT New York Times Magazine article: Gary Taubes, “What If It’s All Been a Big Fat Lie?” New York Times Magazine, July 7, 2002, https://www.nytimes.com/2002/07/07/magazine/what-if-it-s-allbeen-a-bigfat-lie.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT respiratory quotients of different species: Lusk, “A History of Metabolism,” 40–43.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more carbs than fat: Lusk, “A History of Metabolism,” 72.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT so long as the total number of calories didn’t differ: W. O. Atwater, “The Potential Energy of Food. The Chemistry and Economy of Food. III,” Century 34 (1887): 397–405.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT establish the calorie values of protein, fat, and carbs: G. Lusk, “A Tribute to the Life and Work of Max Rubner,” Science 76, no. 1963 (August 12, 1932): 129–135, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.76.1963.129.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT he confirmed: W. O. Atwater and F. G. Benedict, “Experiments on the Metabolism of Matter and Energy in the Human Body, 1898–1900,” US Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 109 (U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1902), 144–147.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “protein enthusiast”: K. J. Carpenter, “The History of Enthusiasm for Protein,” Journal of Nutrition 116, no. 7 (July 1986): 1364–1370, https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/116.7.1364.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT his study results convinced him: W. O. Atwater, “What We Should Eat,” Century 36, no. 2 (June 1888): 257–265.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT influence what and how Americans ate: K. J. Carpenter, “The 1993 W. O.
Atwater Centennial Memorial Lecture. The Life and Times of W. O. Atwater (1844–1907),” Journal of Nutrition 124, no. 9 Suppl. (September 1994): 1707S—1714S, https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/124.suppl_9.1707S.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT what became known as “scientific eating”: W. O. Atwater, “The Pecuniary Economy of Food,” Century, no. 3 (1888): 437–446; W. O. Atwater, Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food (USDA, 1902); Martin Bruegel, “The ‘Science’ of Calorie Information,” New York Times, September 18, 2012, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/09/19/opinion/the-science-of-calorieinfor mation.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT measured the amount of protein, carbohydrate, and fat: W. O. Atwater, Methods and Results of Investigating on the Chemistry and Economy of Food (n.p., 1895).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In 1918: Lulu Hunt Peters, Diet and Health: With Key to the Calories (Reilly and Britton, 1918).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Kevin published the results: K. D. Hall, T. Bemis, R. Brychta, et al., “Calorie for Calorie, Dietary Fat Restriction Results in More Body Fat Loss Than Carbohydrate Restriction in People with Obesity,” Cell Metabolism 22, no. 3 (September 1, 2015): 427–436, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.021.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT When you keep calories constant: K. D. Hall and J. Guo, “Obesity Energetics: Body Weight Regulation and the Effects of Diet Composition,” Gastroenterology 152, no. 7 (May 2017): 1718–1727 e3, https://doi.org/10.1053/j.gastro.2017.01.052.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The first peek: Michael Bliss, The Discovery of Insulin (University of Chicago Press, 1982), http://www.loc.gov/catdir/enhancements/fy0701/82050911-d.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT they suddenly began using glucose: F. G. Banting, C. H. Best, J. B.
Collip, W. R. Campbell, and A.
A. Fletcher, “Pancreatic Extracts in the Treatment of Diabetes Mellitus,” Canadian Medical Association Journal 12, no. 3 (March 1922): 141–146, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20314060. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT inside your body: K. N. Frayn, Metabolic Regulation: A Human Perspective, 3rd ed. (WileyBlackwell, 2010).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT eating very large amounts of carbohydrates: K. J. Acheson, Y. Schutz, T.
Bessard, K.
Anantharaman, J. P. Flatt, and E. Jequier, “Glycogen Storage Capacity and De Novo Lipogenesis During Massive Carbohydrate Overfeeding in Man,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 48, no. 2 (August 1988): 240–247, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/48.2.240; M. K. Hellerstein, “De Novo Lipogenesis in Humans: Metabolic and Regulatory Aspects,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 53, Suppl. 1 (April 1999): S53—S65, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ejcn.1600744.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT another hormone called glucagon: R. D. Carr, M. O. Larsen, M. S. Winzell, et al., “Incretin and Islet Hormonal Responses to Fat and Protein Ingestion in Healthy Men,” American Journal of Physiology. Endocrinology and Metabolism 295, no.
4 (October 2008): E779—E784, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.90233.2008.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT essential fatty acids that are needed in the diet in small amounts: Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (National Academies Press, 2005).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The triglycerides in the blood: J. S. Samra, S. L. Giles, L. K. Summers, et al., “Peripheral Fat Metabolism During Infusion of an Exogenous Triacylglycerol Emulsion,” International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 22, no. 8 (August 1998): 806–812, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0800664; K. Evans, M. L. Clark, and K. N.
Frayn, “Effects of an Oral and Intravenous Fat Load on Adipose Tissue and Forearm Lipid Metabolism,” American Journal of Physiology 276, no. 2 (February 1999): E241—E248, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpendo.1999.276.2.E241.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT good enough to avoid selection pressures: Daniel S. Milo, Good Enough: The Tolerance for Mediocrity in Nature and Society (Harvard University Press, 2019).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT books arguing that cutting carbs was the key to losing weight: Gary Taubes, Good Calories, Bad Calories: Fats, Carbs, and the Controversial Science of Diet and Health (Anchor, 2008); Gary Taubes, Why We Get Fat: And What to Do About It (Knopf, 2010).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the opinion pages of the New York Times: Gary Taubes, “Diet Advice That Ignores Hunger,” New York Times, August 29, 2015.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Others were similarly critical: Mark Hyman, Eat Fat, Get Thin: Why the Fat We Eat Is the Key to Sustained Weight Loss and Vibrant Health (Little, Brown Spark, 2016). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT run additional experiments: K. D. Hall, K. Y. Chen, J. Guo, et al., “Energy Expenditure and Body Composition Changes After an Isocaloric Ketogenic Diet in Overweight and Obese Men,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 104, no. 2 (August 2016): 324–333, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.116.133561; K. D. Hall, J. Guo, K. Y. Chen, et al., “Methodologic Considerations for Measuring Energy Expenditure Differences Between Diets Varying in Carbohydrate Using the Doubly Labeled Water Method,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 109, no. 5 (May 1, 2019): 1328–1334, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy390.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT repeatedly confirmed: Hall and Guo, “Obesity Energetics.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT not happy: Michael and Mary Dan Eades, “Contradictions and Cognitive Dissonance: The (Kevin) Hall Effect,” Protein Power, May 6, 2016, https://proteinpower.com/contradictions-andcognitive-dissonance-the-ke vin-hall-effect/; Jayson Fung, “Here’s $5, Kevin Hall, Go Buy Yourself a Clue,” The Fasting Method, July 20, 2016, https://blog.thefastingmethod.com/heres-5- kevin-hall-go-buy-clue/; David Ludwig, “Defense of the Carbohydrate-Insulin Model Redux: A Response to Kevin Hall,” Medium, May 15, 2016, https://davidludwigmd.medium.com/defenseof-the-insulin-carbohydratemodel-redux-a-response-to-kevin-hall-37ea64907257. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT another clinical trial: K. D. Hall, J. Guo, A. B. Courville, et al., “Effect of a Plant-Based, Low-Fat Diet Versus an Animal-Based, Ketogenic Diet on Ad Libitum Energy Intake,” Nature Medicine 27, no. 2 (February 2021): 344–353, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-01209-1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT other research groups: C. B. Ebbeling, H. A. Feldman, G. L. Klein, et al., “Effects of a Low Carbohydrate Diet on Energy Expenditure During Weight Loss Maintenance: Randomized Trial,” British Medical Journal 363 (November 14, 2018): k4583, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.k4583.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT methodological issues: K. D. Hall, J. Guo, and J. R. Speakman, “Do Low-Carbohydrate Diets Increase Energy Expenditure?,” International Journal of Obesity (London) 43, no. 12 (December 2019): 2350–2354, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-019-0456-3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT published a blog post: “Analysis of recently released FOIA requests by @medfraud_pmh between Dr Kevin Hall, Dr Yoni Freedhof, and Julia Belluz, a Vox Reporter—with extensive anti-keto bias and the sharing of embargoed papers,” Reddit, https://www.reddit.com/r/ketoscience/comments/f6xoj2/analysis_of_rece ntly_released_foia_requ ests_by/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “grossly overweight”: N. R. Kleinfield, “Just What Killed the Diet Doctor, and What Keeps the Issue Alive?,” New York Times, February 11, 2004, https://www.nytimes.com/2004/02/11/nyregion/just-what-killed-the-diet-d octor-and-what-keepsthe-issue-alive.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT weight loss is virtually indistinguishable: C. D. Gardner, J. F.
Trepanowski, L. C. Del Gobbo, et al., “Effect of Low-Fat Vs.
Low-Carbohydrate Diet on 12-Month Weight Loss in Overweight Adults and the Association with Genotype Pattern or Insulin Secretion: The Dietfits Randomized Clinical Trial,” Journal of the American Medical Association 319, no. 7 (February 20, 2018): 667–679, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.0245; D. K. Tobias, M. Chen, J. E.
Manson, D. S.
Ludwig, W. Willett, and F. B. Hu, “Effect of Low-Fat Diet Interventions Versus Other Diet Interventions on Long-Term Weight Change in Adults: A Systematic Review and MetaAnalysis,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 3, no. 12 (December 2015): 968–979, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00367-8; K. D. Hall, “Prescribing Low-Fat Diets: Useless for Long-Term Weight Loss?,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 3, no. 12 (December 2015): 920–921, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(15)00413-1; Y. Freedhoff and K. D.
Hall, “Weight Loss Diet Studies: We Need Help Not Hype,” Lancet 388, no. 10047 (August 27, 2016): 849– 851, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(16)31338-1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT since the 1920s: K. W. Barañano and A. L. Hartman, “The Ketogenic Diet: Uses in Epilepsy and Other Neurologic Illnesses,” Current Treatment Options in Neurology 10, no. 6 (November 2008): 410–419, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11940-008-0043-8; J. W. Wheless, “History of the Ketogenic Diet,” Epilepsia 49, Suppl. 8 (November 2008): 3–5, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1528- 1167.2008.01821.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT neurons more resilient: Barañano and Hartman, “The Ketogenic Diet.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT known as the microbiome: G. R.
Lum, S. M. Ha, C. A. Olson, et al., “Ketogenic Diet Therapy for Pediatric Epilepsy Is Associated with Alterations in the Human Gut Microbiome That Confer Seizure Resistance in Mice,” Cell Reports 42, no. 12 (December 26, 2023): 113521, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.celrep.2023.113521.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reductions in dietary fat: V. L. Darcey, J. Guo, A. B. Courville, et al., “Dietary Fat Restriction Affects Brain Reward Regions in a Randomized Crossover Trial,” JCI Insight 8, no. 12 (June 22, 2023), https://doi.org/10.1172/jci.insight.169759.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT alcohol cravings: C. E. Wiers, P. Manza, G. J. Wang, and N. D. Volkow, “Ketogenic Diet Reduces a Neurobiological Craving Signature in Inpatients with Alcohol Use Disorder,” Frontiers in Nutrition 11 (2024): 1254341, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2024.1254341.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT nonalcoholic fatty liver disease: D. Dynka, L. Rodzen, M. Rodzen, et al., “Beneficial Effects of the Ketogenic Diet on Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD/MAFLD),” Journal of Clinical Medicine 13, no. 16 (August 17, 2024), https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm13164857.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a quarter of American adults: “Definition & Facts of NAFLD & NASH,” National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, accessed January 15, 2025, https://www.niddk.nih.gov/health-information/liver-disease/nafld-nash/def inition-facts.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reduce their average blood glucose levels: O. Snorgaard, G. M. Poulsen, H. K. Andersen, and A.
Astrup, “Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Dietary Carbohydrate Restriction in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes,” BMJ Open Diabetes Research & Care 5, no. 1 (2017): e000354, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjdrc-2016-000354; E. Sainsbury, N. V. Kizirian, S. R. Partridge, T.
Gill, S. Colagiuri, and A. A. Gibson, “Effect of Dietary Carbohydrate Restriction on Glycemic Control in Adults with Diabetes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 139 (May 2018): 239–252, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.diabres.2018.02.026; D. Tinguely, J. Gross, and C. Kosinski, “Efficacy of Ketogenic Diets on Type 2 Diabetes: A Systematic Review,” Current Diabetes Reports 21, no. 9 (August 27, 2021): 32, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11892-021-01399-z.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT rapid changes: V. M. Link, P.
Subramanian, F. Cheung, et al., “Differential Peripheral Immune Signatures Elicited by Vegan Versus Ketogenic Diets in Humans,” Nature Medicine 30, no. 2 (February 2024): 560–572, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-023-02761-2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT study, published in Nature: B. D. Hopkins, C. Pauli, X. Du, et al., “Suppression of Insulin Feedback Enhances the Efficacy of Pi3k Inhibitors,” Nature 560, no. 7719 (August 2018): 499–503, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-018-0343-4.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a researcher once told Julia: Julia Belluz, “The Keto Moment,” Vox, December 30, 2019, https://www.vox.com/the-highlight/2019/7/25/18744359/keto-diet-weight-l oss-diabetes.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a range of health benefits: A. Reynolds, J. Mann, J. Cummings, N.
Winter, E. Mete, and L. Te Morenga, “Carbohydrate Quality and Human Health: A Series of Systematic Reviews and MetaAnalyses,” Lancet 393, no. 10170 (February 2, 2019): 434–445, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140- 6736(18)31809-9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Fiber seems to nourish: N. M. Delzenne, L. B. Bindels, A. M. Neyrinck, et al., “The Gut Microbiome and Dietary Fibres: Implications in Obesity, Cardiometabolic Diseases and Cancer,” Nature Reviews Microbiology 23 (2025): 225–238, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41579-024-01108-z.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 5: Ode to Body Fat slicked-back hair: Floriana Cason, “My Name is Giorgio Fischer,” Roman Walks, August 2024, https://romanwalks.org/prodotto/rw-interview-8-2/#pag8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 100,000 people in the United States: James Hirsch, “Despite Cost and Risk, Plastic Surgery Thrives,” New York Times, June 29, 1988, https://www.nytimes.com/1988/06/29/style/despitecost-and-risk-plastic-s urgery-thrives.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT modern liposuction: Ryan William Ahern, “The History of Liposuction,” Seminars in Cutaneous Medicine and Surgery 28, no. 4 (2009): 208–211, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20123418.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “throttled by acute diseases”: Sander L. Gilman, Obesity: The Biography, Biographies of Disease (Oxford University Press, 2010).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Metropolitan Life Insurance Company reports: George A. Bray, “Life Insurance and Overweight,” Obesity Research 3, no. 1 (1995): 97–99, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550- 8528.1995.tb00125.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT characteristics that defined the “average man”: Garabed Eknoyan, “Adolphe Quetelet (1796– 1874)—the Average Man and Indices of Obesity,” Nephrology Dialysis Transplantation 23, no. 1 (2008): 47–51, https://doi.org/10.1093/ndt/gfm517; Rachel Pray, “The History and Faults of the Body Mass Index and Where to Look Next: A Literature Review,” Cureus 15, no. 11 (November 3, 2023): e48230, https://doi.org/10.7759/cureus.48230.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a diagnostic tool for disease: Julia Belluz, “Are We Thinking About Obesity All Wrong?,” New York Times, September 19, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/09/19/opinion/obesity-diseaseozempic-w eight-loss.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the health of fifteen women with obesity: Samuel Klein, Luigi Fontana, V. Leroy Young, et al., “Absence of an Effect of Liposuction on Insulin Action and Risk Factors for Coronary Heart Disease,” New England Journal of Medicine 350, no. 25 (2004): 2549–2557, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa033179.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cutting out even visceral fat: Yung Lee, Michal Pedziwiatr, Piotr Major, et al., “The Effect of Omentectomy Added to Bariatric Surgery on Metabolic Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials,” Surgery for Obesity and Related Diseases 14, no. 11 (2018): 1766–1782, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soard.2018.08.003.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Compared to other apes: Sarah P. Williams, “Why Humans Are the Fat Primate,” Science, June 1, 2015, https://www.science.org/content/article/why-humans-are-fat-primate.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT most of us can get enough fuel from our fat tissue: Kevin D. Hall, “Quantitative Physiology of Human Starvation: Adaptations of Energy Expenditure, Macronutrient Metabolism, and Body Composition,” in Comparative Physiology of Fasting, Starvation, and Food Limitation, ed.
Marshall Douglas McCue (Springer, 2012).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Guinness World Record: “Longest Survival Without Food,” Guinness World Records, accessed January 31, 2025, https://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/78789-longest-sur vivalwithout-food.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Angus Barbieri: “The Story of Angus Barbieri, Who Went 382 Days Without Eating,” diabetes.co.uk, accessed January 31, 2025, https://www.diabetes.co.uk/blog/2018/02/story-angusbarbieri-went-382-d ays-without-eating/; W. K. Fleming and Laura W. Stewart, “Features of a Successful Therapeutic Fast of 382 Days’ Duration,” Postgraduate Medical Journal 49 (1973): 203–209.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT David Blaine survived without food: John M. Jackson, David Blaine, Jeremy Powell-Tuck, Márta Korbonits, Adam Carey, and Marinos Elia, “Macro- and Micronutrient Losses and Nutritional Status Resulting from 44 Days of Total Fasting in a Non-Obese Man,” Nutrition 22, no. 9 (2006): 889–897, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nut.2006.06.001. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Our muscles make up 30 to 40 percent of our body weight: M. Elia, “Organ and Tissue Contribution to Metabolic Rate,” in Energy Metabolism: Tissue Determinants and Cellular Corollaries, eds. J. M. Kinney and H. N. Tucker (Raven Press, 1992).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT balloon in volume by several thousandfold: Margareta Jernas, Jenny Palming, Kajsa Sjoholm, et al., “Separation of Human Adipocytes by Size: Hypertrophic Fat Cells Display Distinct Gene Expression,” FASEB Journal 20, no. 9 (2006): 1540–1542, https://doi.org/10.1096/fj.05-5678fje.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT processes so astonishing: Keith N. Frayn, F. Karpe, B. A. Fielding, I. A.
Macdonald, and S. W.
Coppack, “Integrative Physiology of Human Adipose Tissue,” International Journal of Obesity and Related Metabolic Disorders 27, no.
8 (August 2003): 875–888, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0802326.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the body starts to get crafty about getting energy: Hall, “Quantitative Physiology of Human Starvation.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT hundredfold more energy: Jake P. Mann and David B. Savage, “What Lipodystrophies Teach Us About the Metabolic Syndrome,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 129, no. 10 (2019): 4009– 4021, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI129190.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT liver starts recycling and reusing: E. O. Balasse and F. Fery, “Ketone Body Production and Disposal: Effects of Fasting, Diabetes, and Exercise,” Diabetes/Metabolism Research and Reviews 5, no. 3 (May 1989): 247–270, https://doi.org/10.1002/dmr.5610050304.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT their uptake of ketones drops: O. E. Owen and George A. Reichard Jr., “Human Forearm Metabolism During Progressive Starvation,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 50, no. 7 (1971): 1536–1545, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI106639.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the muscles export amino acids into the blood: Hall, “Quantitative Physiology of Human Starvation.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT building up in other organs: R. Taylor, “Understanding the Cause of Type 2 Diabetes,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 12, no. 9 (September 2024): 664–673, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213- 8587(24)00157-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT What defines excess fat varies: R. Taylor, A. C. Barnes, K. G.
Hollingsworth, et al., “Aetiology of Type 2 Diabetes in People with a ‘Normal’ Body Mass Index: Testing the Personal Fat Threshold Hypothesis,” Clinical Science (London) 137, no. 16 (August 31, 2023): 1333–1346, https://doi.org/10.1042/CS20230586.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT relative amount of fat: Luca A. Lotta, Laura B. L. Wittemans, Verena Zuber, et al., “Association of Genetic Variants Related to Gluteofemoral Vs. Abdominal Fat Distribution with Type 2 Diabetes, Coronary Disease, and Cardiovascular Risk Factors,” Journal of the American Medical Association 320, no. 24 (2018): 2553–2563, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.19329; Mathias Rask-Andersen, Torgny Karlsson, Weronica E. Ek, and Asa Johansson, “Genome-Wide Association Study of Body Fat Distribution Identifies Adiposity Loci and Sex-Specific Genetic Effects,” Nature Communications 10, no. 1 (2019): 339, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-018- 08000-4.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT patients with lipodystrophy are also resistant to insulin: R. J. Brown, D.
Araujo-Vilar, P. T.
Cheung, et al., “The Diagnosis and Management of Lipodystrophy Syndromes: A Multi-Society Practice Guideline,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 101, no. 12 (December 2016): 4500–4511, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2016-2466.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT subcutaneous fat tissue remodels itself: S. Lecoutre, C. Rebiere, S.
Maqdasy, et al., “Enhancing Adipose Tissue Plasticity: Progenitor Cell Roles in Metabolic Health,” Nature Reviews Endocrinology (January 6, 2025), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-024-01071-y.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Mitochondrial abnormalities in these tissues: Panjamaporn Sangwung, Kitt Falk Petersen, Gerald I. Shulman, and Joshua W. Knowles, “Mitochondrial Dysfunction, Insulin Resistance, and Potential Genetic Implications,” Endocrinology 161, no. 4 (2020): bqaa017, https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqaa017.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT poorly controlled blood sugar and the development of type 2 diabetes: S. Klein, A. Gastaldelli, H.
Yki-Jarvinen, and P. E. Scherer, “Why Does Obesity Cause Diabetes?,” Cell Metabolism 34, no. 1 (January 4, 2022): 11–20, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2021.12.012; G. Xourafa, M.
Korbmacher, and M. Roden, “Inter-Organ Crosstalk During Development and Progression of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus,” Nature Reviews Endocrinology 20, no. 1 (January 2024): 27–49, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-023-00898-1; M. Roden and G. I.
Shulman, “The Integrative Biology of Type 2 Diabetes,” Nature 576, no.
7785 (December 2019): 51–60, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-019-1797-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cause atherosclerosis: Allan D. Sniderman, George Thanassoulis, Tamara Glavinovic, et al., “Apolipoprotein B Particles and Cardiovascular Disease: A Narrative Review,” JAMA Cardiology 4, no. 12 (2019): 1287–1295, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2019.3780.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT severe metabolic abnormalities: J. K. Kim, O. Gavrilova, Y. Chen, M. L.
Reitman, and G. I.
Shulman, “Mechanism of Insulin Resistance in A-ZIP/F-1 Fatless Mice,” Journal of Biological Chemistry 275, no. 12 (2000): 8456–8460, https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.275.12.8456; M. L. Reitman and O. Gavrilova, “A-ZIP/F-1 Mice Lacking White Fat: A Model for Understanding Lipoatrophic Diabetes,” International Journal of Obesity 24, Suppl. 4 (2000): S11—S14, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801493.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT After receiving a transplantation: Oksana Gavrilova, Bernice Marcus-Samuels, David Graham, et al., “Surgical Implantation of Adipose Tissue Reverses Diabetes in Lipoatrophic Mice,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 105, no. 3 (2000): 271–278, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI7901.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT These medicines have been shown to improve: R. A. DeFronzo, “Dysfunctional Fat Cells, Lipotoxicity and Type 2 Diabetes,” International Journal of Clinical Practice. Supplement no.
143 (2004): 9–21, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1368-504x.2004.00389.x; S.
A. Smith, “Central Role of the Adipocyte in the Insulin-Sensitising and Cardiovascular Risk Modifying Actions of the Thiazolidinediones,” Biochimie 85, no. 12 (2003): 1219–1230, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biochi.2003.10.010; T. M. Larsen, S. Toubro, and A. Astrup, “PPARgamma Agonists in the Treatment of Type II Diabetes: Is Increased Fatness Commensurate with Long-Term Efficacy?,” International Journal of Obesity 27, no. 2 (2003): 147–161, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.802223.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT stigma and discrimination: Rebecca M. Puhl and Chelsea A. Heuer, “Obesity Stigma: Important Considerations for Public Health,” American Journal of Public Health 100, no. 6 (2010): 1019– 1028, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.159491.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT pegging medical issues to excess weight: Evette Dionne, Weightless: Making Space for My Resilient Body and Soul (Ecco Press, 2022).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT people (particularly women) pay a price: “The Economics of Thinness,” The Economist, December 20, 2022, https://www.economist.com/christmas-specials/2022/12/20/the-economic sof-thinness.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT medical groups in the United States and Europe: F. Rubino, D. E.
Cummings, R. H. Eckel, et al., “Definition and Diagnostic Criteria of Clinical Obesity,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 13, no. 3 (2025): 221–262, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(24)00316-4; Luca Busetto, Dror Dicker, Gema Fruhbeck, et al., “A New Framework for the Diagnosis, Staging and Management of Obesity in Adults,” Nature Medicine 30, no. 9 (2024): 2395–2399, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03095-3; Andrew Grannell and Carel le Roux, “Obesity as a Disease: A Pressing Need for Alignment,” International Journal of Obesity 48, no. 10 (2024): 1361–1362, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366-024-01582-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Physical activity and fitness: Francisco B. Ortega, Jonatan R. Ruiz, Idoia Labayen, Carl J. Lavie, and Steven N. Blair, “The Fat but Fit Paradox: What We Know and Don’t Know About It,” British Journal of Sports Medicine 52, no. 3, (2018): 151–153, https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28583992/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 6: The Conductor Breathing is subconsciously controlled: Joshua E. Brinkman, Fadi Toro, and Sandeep Sharma, “Physiology, Respiratory Drive,” StatPearls, last updated June 5, 2023, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482414/; Charilaos Chourpiliadis and Abhishek Bhardwaj, “Physiology, Respiratory Rate,” StatPearls, last updated September 12, 2022, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK537306/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT what and how much we eat can fluctuate wildly: Carson C. Chow and K.
D. Hall, “Short and Long-Term Energy Intake Patterns and Their Implications for Human Body Weight Regulation,” Physiology & Behavior 134 (2014): 60–65, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2014.02.044; O. G.
Edholm, J. M. Adam, M. J. Healy, H. S. Wolff, R. Goldsmith, and T. W.
Best, “Food Intake and Energy Expenditure of Army Recruits,” British Journal of Nutrition 24, no. 4 (1970): 1091–1107, https://doi.org/10.1079/bjn19700112.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Kevin saw this play out in one of his studies: David Polidori, Arjun Sanghvi, Randy J. Seeley, and Kevin D. Hall, “How Strongly Does Appetite Counter Weight Loss? Quantification of the Feedback Control of Human Energy Intake,” Obesity 24, no. 11 (2016): 2289–2295, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.21653.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Elisa Moser: Bernard Mohr, “Neuropathology Communication from Dr.
Mohr, Privat Docent in Würzburg. 1840,” Obesity Research 1, no. 4 (1993): 334–335, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550- 8528.1993.tb00630.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one caused the other: George A. Bray, “Commentary on Classics of Obesity. 4. Hypothalamic Obesity,” Obesity Research 1, no. 4 (1993): 325–328, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550- 8528.1993.tb00627.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Austrian case of a twelve-year-old boy: Hilde Bruch, “The Fröhlich Syndrome: Report of the Original Case,” Obesity Research 1, no. 4 (1993): 329–331, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550- 8528.1993.tb00628.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Fröhlich was proved right: Bray, “Commentary on Classics of Obesity,” 326.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One by one, more cases: John R. Brobeck, Jay Tepperman, and C. N.
H. Long, “Experimental Hypothalamic Hyperphagia in the Albino Rat,” Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine 15, no. 6 (1943): 831–853, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/21434115.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT experiments in animals: Brobeck et al., “Experimental Hypothalamic Hyperphagia in the Albino Rat,” 833–851; Gilbert C. Kennedy, “The Hypothalamic Control of Food Intake in Rats,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 137, no. 889 (1950): 535–549, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1950.0065.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT glucostatic theory: Jean Mayer, “Glucostatic Mechanism of Regulation of Food Intake,” New England Journal of Medicine 249, no. 1 (1953): 13–16, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM195307022490104.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT been replicated in recent studies: P. Wyatt, S. E. Berry, G. Finlayson, et al., “Postprandial Glycaemic Dips Predict Appetite and Energy Intake in Healthy Individuals,” Nature Metabolism 7, no. 3 (2021): 1032, doi: 10.1038/s42255-021-00436-1.
https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC7610681/. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT lipostatic theory: G. C. Kennedy, “The Role of Depot Fat in the Hypothalamic Control of Food Intake in the Rat,” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 140, no. 901 (1953): 578–596, https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.1953.0009.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Coleman became obsessed: Ellen Ruppel Shell, The Hungry Gene: The Science of Fat and the Future of Thin (Atlantic Monthly Press, 2002).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT By 1994: YiYing Zhang, Ricardo Proenca, Margherita Maffei, Marisa Barone, Lori Leopold, and Jeffrey M. Friedman, “Positional Cloning of the Mouse Obese Gene and Its Human Homologue,” Nature 372, no.
6505 (1994): 425–432, https://doi.org/10.1038/372425a0. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT By 1997: Carl T. Montague, I. Sadaf Farooqi, Jonathan P. Whitehead, et al., “Congenital Leptin Deficiency Is Associated with Severe Early-Onset Obesity in Humans,” Nature 387, no. 6636 (1997): 903–908, https://doi.org/10.1038/43185.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT many servants of metabolism: Alan G. Watts, Scott E. Kanoski, Graciela Sanchez-Watts, and Wolfgang Langhans, “The Physiological Control of Eating: Signals, Neurons, and Networks,” Physiological Reviews 102, no. 2 (2022): 689–813, https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00028.2020.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT genetic contribution: A. J. Stunkard, T. T. Foch, and Z. Hrubec, “A Twin Study of Human Obesity,” Journal of the American Medical Association 256, no. 1 (1986): 51–54, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/3712713; A. J. Stunkard, J. R.
Harris, N. L. Pedersen, and G. E. McClearn, “The Body-Mass Index of Twins Who Have Been Reared Apart,” New England Journal of Medicine 322, no. 21 (1990): 1483–1487, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199005243222102; C. B. Davenport, “Body Build and Its Inheritance,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 9, no. 7 (1923): 226–230, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.9.7.226; George A. Bray, “The Inheritance of Corpulence,” Obesity Research 2, no. 6 (1994): 601–605, https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1550- 8528.1994.tb00111.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT injections of recombinant human leptin: I. S. Farooqi, S. A. Jebb, G.
Langmack, et al., “Effects of Recombinant Leptin Therapy in a Child with Congenital Leptin Deficiency,” New England Journal of Medicine 341, no. 12 (1999): 879–884, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM199909163411204.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one in several million people: “Congenital Leptin Deficiency,” National Organization for Rare Disorders, accessed January 15, 2025, https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/congenital-leptindeficiency/#affect ed.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT layers of signals: Christopher A. Zimmerman and Zachary A. Knight, “Layers of Signals That Regulate Appetite,” Current Opinion in Neurobiology 64 (2020): 79–88, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.conb.2020.03.007; M. L. Andermann and B. B.
Lowell, “Toward a Wiring Diagram Understanding of Appetite Control,” Neuron 95, no. 4 (2017): 757–778, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2017.06.014; Watts et al., “Physiological Control of Eating”; I. C. Alcantara, A. P. M. Tapia, Y. Aponte, and M. J.
Krashes, “Acts of Appetite: Neural Circuits Governing the Appetitive, Consummatory, and Terminating Phases of Feeding,” Nature Metabolism 4, no. 7 (2022): 836–847, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-022-00611-y; H. R.
Berthoud, C. D. Morrison, and H. Munzberg, “The Obesity Epidemic in the Face of Homeostatic Body Weight Regulation: What Went Wrong and How Can It Be Fixed?,” Physiology & Behavior 222 (August 1, 2020): 112959, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.112959.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT compulsively consume cocaine: Tore Eid, “Starvation Strengthens Addiction,” Science Translational Medicine 5: no. 200 (2013): p200ec142, https://doi.org/10.1126/scitranslmed.3007309.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT animals would gain weight: Anthony Sclafani and Deleri Springer, “Dietary Obesity in Adult Rats: Similarities to Hypothalamic and Human Obesity Syndromes,” Physiology & Behavior 17, no. 3 (1976): 461–471, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(76)90109-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT happens outside our conscious awareness: H. Munzberg, E.
Qualls-Creekmore, S. Yu, C. D.
Morrison, and H. R. Berthoud, “Hedonics Act in Unison with the Homeostatic System to Unconsciously Control Body Weight,” Frontiers in Nutrition 3 (2016), https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2016.00006.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in response to food photos: A. P. Goldstone, C. G. Prechtl de Hernandez, J. D. Beaver, et al., “Fasting Biases Brain Reward Systems Towards High-Calorie Foods,” European Journal of Neuroscience 30, no.
8 (2009): 1625–1635, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-9568.2009.06949.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT modified by humans to be addictive: A. N. Gearhardt and A. G.
DiFeliceantonio, “Highly Processed Foods Can Be Considered Addictive Substances Based on Established Scientific Criteria,” Addiction 118, no.
4 (2023): 589–598, https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16065.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One of his studies: Goldstone et al., “Fasting Biases Brain Reward Systems.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT all they could think about was eating: Todd Tucker, The Great Starvation Experiment: The Heroic Men Who Starved So That Millions Could Live (Free Press, 2006). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Stimulate AgRP neurons in well-fed mice: Y. Aponte, D. Atasoy, and S. M.
Sternson, “AgRP Neurons Are Sufficient to Orchestrate Feeding Behavior Rapidly and Without Training,” Nature Neuroscience 14, no. 3 (2011): 351–355, https://doi.org/10.1038/nn.2739; M. J. Krashes, S.
Koda, C. Ye, et al., “Rapid, Reversible Activation of AgRP Neurons Drives Feeding Behavior in Mice,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 121, no. 4 (2011): 1424–1428, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI46229.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT particular populations of neurons: B. B. Lowell, “New Neuroscience of Homeostasis and Drives for Food, Water, and Salt,” New England Journal of Medicine 380, no. 5 (2019): 459–471, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1812053.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT AgRP neurons actually cease their firing: Y. Y. Chen, C. Lin, T. W. Kuo, and Z. A. Knight, “Sensory Detection of Food Rapidly Modulates Arcuate Feeding Circuits,” Cell 160, no. 5 (2015): 829–841, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.01.033; J. N. Betley, S. Xu, Z. F. H.
Cao, et al., “Neurons for Hunger and Thirst Transmit a Negative-Valence Teaching Signal,” Nature 521, no. 7551 (2015): 180–185, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14416.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT AGRP neurons shut off in proportion: Zimmerman and Knight, “Layers of Signals That Regulate Appetite.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT pleasure chemical: Dana G. Smith, “We Have a Dopamine Problem,” New York Times, June 30, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/06/30/well/mind/dopamine-brain-behavior .html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT deficient in dopamine: R. D. Palmiter, “Dopamine Signaling in the Dorsal Striatum Is Essential for Motivated Behaviors: Lessons from Dopamine-Deficient Mice,” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1129 (2008): 35–46, https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1417.003.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the dopamine burst shifts: W. Schultz, P. Dayan, and P. R. Montague, “A Neural Substrate of Prediction and Reward,” Science 275, no. 5306 (1997): 1593–1599, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.275.5306.1593.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the dorsal striatum: D. M. Small and A. G. DiFeliceantonio, “Processed Foods and Food Reward,” Science 363, no. 6425 (2019): 346–347, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav0556; M. McDougle, A. de Araujo, A.
Singh, et al., “Separate Gut-Brain Circuits for Fat and Sugar Reinforcement Combine to Promote Overeating,” Cell Metabolism 36, no. 2 (2024): 393–407 e7, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2023.12.014.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Dopamine can drive eating palatable food: R. G. Denis, A. Joly-Amado, E. Webber, et al., “Palatability Can Drive Feeding Independent of AgRP Neurons,” Cell Metabolism 22, no. 4 (2015): 646–657, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2015.07.011.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT other systems we’re just beginning to understand: Cynthia Graber and Nicola Twiley, “You’ve Lost That Hungry Feeling,” Gastropod, May 23, 2023, https://gastropod.com/transcript-youvelost-that-hungry-feeling/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT compared how the brains of people with and without PWS responded: A.
Y. T. Low, N.
Goldstein, J. R. Gaunt, et al., “Reverse-Translational Identification of a Cerebellar Satiation Network,” Nature 600, no. 7888 (2021): 269–273, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-021-04143-5.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT turn those movements into habits: H. H. Yin and B. J. Knowlton, “The Role of the Basal Ganglia in Habit Formation,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 7, no. 6 (2006): 464–476, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn1919.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “sweet-blind mice”: I. E. de Araujo, A. J. Oliveira-Maia, T. D. Sotnikova, et al., “Food Reward in the Absence of Taste Receptor Signaling,” Neuron 57, no. 6 (2008): 930–941, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2008.01.032.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Emerging evidence in mice suggests that the microbiota: A. Fasano, “The Physiology of Hunger,” New England Journal of Medicine 392, no.
4 (2025): 372–381, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra2402679; T. Zhang, W. Wang, J. Li, et al., “Free Fatty Acid Receptor 4 Modulates Dietary Sugar Preference via the Gut Microbiota,” Nature Microbiology 10, no. 2 (2025): 348–361, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41564-024-01902-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a mutation in their taste receptors: X. Li, W. Li, H. Wang, et al., “Cats Lack a Sweet Taste Receptor,” Journal of Nutrition 136, no. 7 Suppl. (2006): 1932S—1934S, https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/136.7.1932S.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT prefer sweet bananas: Wanda Wyrwicka, “Eating Banana in Cats for Brain Stimulation Reward,” Physiology & Behavior 12, no. 6 (1974): 1063–1066, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031- 9384(74)90155-3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT imitated their mothers’ odd eating behavior: Wanda Wyrwicka, “Imitation of Mother’s Inappropriate Food Preference in Weanling Kittens,” Pavlovian Journal of Biological Science 13, no. 2 (1978): 55–72, https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03000667.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT another signal to the brain that we are filling up: Y. Zhao, Y. Liu, T. Tao, et al., “Gastric Mechanosensitive Channel Piezo1 Regulates Ghrelin Production and Food Intake,” Nature Metabolism 6, no. 3 (2024): 458–472, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-024-00995-z; A. J. Page, J.
A. Slattery, C. Milte, et al., “Ghrelin Selectively Reduces Mechanosensitivity of Upper Gastrointestinal Vagal Afferents,” American Journal of Physiology. Gastrointestinal and Liver Physiology 292, no. 5 (2007): G1376G1384, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajpgi.00536.2006.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT their effects can also be overridden: A. Hengist, C. M. Sciarrillo, J. Guo, M. Walter, and K. D.
Hall, “Gut-Derived Appetite Hormones Do Not Explain Energy Intake Differences in Humans Following Low-Carbohydrate Versus Low-Fat Diets,” Obesity 32, no. 9 (2024): 1689–1698, https://doi.org/10.1002/oby.24104.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Goldstone’s research found: A. P. Goldstone, A. D. Miras, S. Scholtz, et al., “Link Between Increased Satiety Gut Hormones and Reduced Food Reward After Gastric Bypass Surgery for Obesity,” Journal of Clinical Endocrinology & Metabolism 101, no. 2 (2016): 599–609, https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2015-2665.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT orders of magnitude greater: Hengist et al., “Gut-Derived Appetite Hormones.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT enhanced insulin secretion: J. J.
Holst, “The Physiology of Glucagon-Like Peptide 1,” Physiological Reviews 87, no. 4 (2007): 1409–1439, https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.00034.2006.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the drugs stopped working: S. Sisley, R. Gutierrez-Aguilar, M. Scott, D.
A. D’Alessio, D. A.
Sandoval, and R. J. Seeley, “Neuronal GLP1R Mediates Liraglutide’s Anorectic but Not GlucoseLowering Effect,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 124, no. 6 (2014): 2456–2463, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI72434.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Both types of hindbrain neurons: K. P. Huang, A. A. Acosta, M. Y.
Ghidewon, et al., “Dissociable Hindbrain GLP1R Circuits for Satiety and Aversion,” Nature 632, no. 8025 (2024): 585–593, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41586-024-07685-6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “sensory-specific satiety”: B. J. Rolls, “Sensory-Specific Satiety,” Nutrition Reviews 44, no. 3 (1986): 93–101, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1986.tb07593.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT opioid system: I. Morales and K. C. Berridge, “ ‘Liking’ and ‘Wanting’ in Eating and Food Reward: Brain Mechanisms and Clinical Implications,” Physiology & Behavior 227 (2020): 113152, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2020.113152.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ghrelin spurs on alcohol consumption: K. K. Kharbanda, M. Farokhnia, S. L. Deschaine, et al., “Role of the Ghrelin System in Alcohol Use Disorder and Alcohol-Associated Liver Disease: A Narrative Review,” Alcoholism Clinical Experimental Research 46, no. 12 (2022): 2149–2159, https://doi.org/10.1111/acer.14967.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT curb addiction to drugs like alcohol: M. Farokhnia, J. Tazare, C. L. Pince, et al., “Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 Receptor Agonists but Not Dipeptidyl Peptidase-4 Inhibitors Reduce Alcohol Intake,” Journal of Clinical Investigation (2025), https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI188314; E. Jerlhag, “GLP-1 Receptor Agonists: Promising Therapeutic Targets for Alcohol Use Disorder,” Endocrinology 166, no. 4 (2025), https://doi.org/10.1210/endocr/bqaf028; L. J. Nestor and K. D. Ersche, “Gut Hormones: Possible Mediators of Addictive Disorders?,” European Addiction Research (2024): 1–8, https://doi.org/10.1159/000540743; M.
K. Klausen, M. Thomsen, G. Wortwein, and A. Fink-Jensen, “The Role of Glucagon-Like Peptide 1 (GLP-1) in Addictive Disorders,” British Journal of Pharmacology 179, no. 4 (2022): 625–641, https://doi.org/10.1111/bph.15677. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT genetic variants now linked to common obesity: R. J. F. Loos and G. S. H. Yeo, “The Genetics of Obesity: From Discovery to Biology,” Nature Reviews Genetics 23, no. 2 (2022): 120–133, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41576-021-00414-z; H. K.
Finucane, Y. A. Reshef, V. Anttila, et al., “Heritability Enrichment of Specifically Expressed Genes Identifies Disease-Relevant Tissues and Cell Types,” Nature Genetics 50, no. 4 (2018): 621–629, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-018- 0081-4; A. E. Locke, B. Kahali, S. I.
Berndt, et al., “Genetic Studies of Body Mass Index Yield New Insights for Obesity Biology,” Nature 518, no. 7538 (2015): 197–206, https://doi.org/10.1038/nature14177.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT consumer genetic test: Thank you to Ruth Loos and Lasse Folkersen for helping to interpret the results.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT increasing her odds: M. C. C. Guillaumin and D. Peleg-Raibstein, “Maternal Over- and Malnutrition and Increased Risk for Addictive and Eating Disorders in the Offspring,” Nutrients 15, no. 5 (2023), https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15051095; Z. Y. Ong, J. R. Gugusheff, and B.
S.
Muhlhausler, “Perinatal Overnutrition and the Programming of Food Preferences: Pathways and Mechanisms,” Journal of Developmental Origins of Health and Disease 3, no. 5 (2012): 299– 308, https://doi.org/10.1017/S204017441200030X.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT sleep—another underappreciated factor: H. K. Al Khatib, S. V. Harding, J. Darzi, and G. K. Pot, “The Effects of Partial Sleep Deprivation on Energy Balance: A Systematic Review and MetaAnalysis,” European Journal of Clinical Nutrition 71, no. 5 (2017): 614–624, https://doi.org/10.1038/ejcn.2016.201; B. Zhu, C. Shi, C. G. Park, X.
Zhao, and S. Reutrakul, “Effects of Sleep Restriction on Metabolism-Related Parameters in Healthy Adults: A Comprehensive Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials,” Sleep Medicine Reviews 45 (2019): 18–30, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.smrv.2019.02.002; P. L. Capers, A. D.
Fobian, K. A. Kaiser, R. Borah, and D. B. Allison, “A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Controlled Trials of the Impact of Sleep Duration on Adiposity and Components of Energy Balance,” Obesity Reviews 16, no. 9 (2015): 771–782, https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12296; S. Fenton, T. L. Burrows, J. A. Skinner, and M. J. Duncan, “The Influence of Sleep Health on Dietary Intake: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Intervention Studies,” Journal of Human Nutrition and Dietetics 34, no. 2 (2021): 273–285, https://doi.org/10.1111/jhn.12813; E.
Tasali, K. Wroblewski, E. Kahn, J. Kilkus, and D. A. Schoeller, “Effect of Sleep Extension on Objectively Assessed Energy Intake Among Adults with Overweight in Real-Life Settings: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” JAMA Internal Medicine 182, no. 4 (2022): 365–374, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamainternmed.2021.8098.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Cohort studies, which follow people: A. D. Stein, H. S. Kahn, A. Rundle, P. A. Zybert, K. van der Pal-de Bruin, and L. H. Lumey, “Anthropometric Measures in Middle Age After Exposure to Famine During Gestation: Evidence from the Dutch Famine,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 85, no. 3 (2007): 869–876, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/85.3.869; G. P. Ravelli, Z. A.
Stein, and M. W. Susser, “Obesity in Young Men After Famine Exposure in Utero and Early Infancy,” New England Journal of Medicine 295, no. 7 (1976): 349–353, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM197608122950701; L. H.
Lumey, P. Ekamper, G. Bijwaard, G.
Conti, and F. van Poppel, “Overweight and Obesity at Age 19 After Pre-Natal Famine Exposure,” International Journal of Obesity 45, no. 8 (2021): 1668–1676, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41366- 021-00824-3; P. Z.
Zimmet, “Diabetes and Its Drivers: The Largest Epidemic in Human History?,” Clinical Diabetes and Endocrinology 3, no. 1 (2017), https://doi.org/10.1186/s40842- 016-0039-3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT persistently affected how their genes worked: B. T. Heijmans, E. W. Tobi, A. D. Stein, et al., “Persistent Epigenetic Differences Associated with Prenatal Exposure to Famine in Humans,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105, no. 44 (2008): 17046–17049, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0806560105.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT passed on through multiple generations: A. Boskovic and O. J. Rando, “Transgenerational Epigenetic Inheritance,” Annual Review of Genetics 52 (2018): 21–41, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-genet-120417-031404; S. E. King and M. K. Skinner, “Epigenetic Transgenerational Inheritance of Obesity Susceptibility,” Trends in Endocrinology & Metabolism 31, no. 7 (2020): 478–494, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tem.2020.02.009.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT our biology makes us vulnerable and creates potentials: Robert M.
Sapolsky, Behave: The Biology of Humans at Our Best and Worst (Penguin Press, 2017); Robert M. Sapolsky, Determined: A Science of Life Without Free Will (Penguin Press, 2023).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 7: The Food Environment He knew that slicing into the brains: Anthony Sclafani, “From Appetite Setpoint to Appetition: 50 Years of Ingestive Behavior Research,” Physiology & Behavior 192 (2018): 210–217, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2018.01.001; Joseph R. Vasselli and Gerard P. Smith, “Anthony Sclafani: Consummate Scientist,” Appetite 122 (2018): 6–16, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2016.12.024.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Adult rats eat for calories: Edward F. Adolph, “Urges to Eat and Drink in Rats,” American Journal of Physiology 151, no. 1 (1947): 110–125, https://doi.org/10.1152/ajplegacy.1947.151.1.110.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one of the seminal experiments: Anthony Sclafani and Deleri Springer, “Dietary Obesity in Adult Rats: Similarities to Hypothalamic and Human Obesity Syndromes,” Physiology & Behavior 17, no. 3 (1976): 461–471, https://doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(76)90109-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT New York City rat dragging a slice of pizza: “New York City Rat Taking Pizza Home on the Subway (Pizza Rat™),” posted by Matt Little, September 21, 2015, YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UPXUG8q4jKU.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Obesity can easily be produced”: Sclafani and Springer, “Dietary Obesity in Adult Rats.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT shifting the balance point: Hall and Guo, “Obesity Energetics.” John R.
Speakman and Kevin D. Hall, “Models of Body Weight and Fatness Regulation,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 378, no. 1888 (2023): 2022–0231, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0231.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the most important nutrition study since vitamins: Nicholas Florko, “How a Government Scientist Is Pushing to Supersize Research into Ultra-Processed Foods,” STAT, September 11, 2024, https://www.statnews.com/2024/09/11/ultra-processed-foods-health-nih-r esearch-kevinhall-controlled-trials/; Marion Nestle, “Regulating the Food Industry: An Aspirational Agenda,” American Journal of Public Health 112, no. 6 (2022): 853–858, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2022.306844.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT glaringly obvious: Dhruv Khullar, “Why Is the American Diet So Deadly?,” New Yorker, January 6, 2025, https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2025/01/13/why-is-the-american-d iet-so-deadly.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT hundreds of thousands of years: Richard W. Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (Basic Books, 2009).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT has emerged as the most likely driver: Boyd A. Swinburn, Gary Sacks, Kevin D. Hall, et al., “The Global Obesity Pandemic: Shaped by Global Drivers and Local Environments,” Lancet 378, no.
9793 (2011): 804–814, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)60813-1; C. A. Monteiro, J. C.
Moubarac, G. Cannon, S. W. Ng, and B. Popkin, “Ultra-Processed Products Are Becoming Dominant in the Global Food System,” Obesity Reviews 14, Suppl. 2 (2013): 21–28, https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12107; B. Popkin, S. W. Ng, and L. S. Taillie, “The Mismatch Between Biological Needs and the Modern Food Industry,” Nature Food (March 10, 2025): 216– 219, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-025-01129-8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT any decreases in physical activity: J. R. Speakman, J. M. A. de Jong, S.
Sinha, et al., “Total Daily Energy Expenditure Has Declined over the Past Three Decades Due to Declining Basal Expenditure, Not Reduced Activity Expenditure,” Nature Metabolism 5, no. 4 (2023): 579–588, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-023-00782-2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT longest-term data on food consumption trends: J. C. Moubarac, M. Batal, A. P. Martins, et al., “Processed and Ultra-Processed Food Products: Consumption Trends in Canada from 1938 to 2011,” Canadian Journal of Dietetic Practice and Research 75, no. 1 (2014): 15–21, https://doi.org/10.3148/75.1.2014.15.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 60 percent of the calories: F. Juul, N. Parekh, E. Martinez-Steele, C. A.
Monteiro, and V. W. Chang, “Ultra-Processed Food Consumption Among US Adults from 2001 to 2018,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 115, no. 1 (2022): 211–221, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab305.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT two-thirds of the calories eaten by kids: L. Wang, E. Martinez Steele, M.
Du, et al., “Trends in Consumption of Ultraprocessed Foods Among US Youths Aged 2–19 Years, 1999–2018,” Journal of the American Medical Association 326, no. 6 (2021): 519–530, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.10238.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT so did portion sizes: L. R. Young and M. Nestle, “The Contribution of Expanding Portion Sizes to the US Obesity Epidemic,” American Journal of Public Health 92, no. 2 (2002): 246–249, https://doi.org/10.2105/ajph.92.2.246; L. R. Young and M.
Nestle, “Expanding Portion Sizes in the US Marketplace: Implications for Nutrition Counseling,” Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics 103, no. 2 (2003): 231–240, https://doi.org/10.1053/jada.2003.50027.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Many of the foods we eat: Nina Lakhani, Aliya Uteuova, and Alvin Chang, “Revealed: The True Extent of America’s Food Monopolies, and Who Pays the Price,” The Guardian, July 14, 2021, https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2021/jul/14/foo d-monopoly-mealsprofits-data-investigation.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT entirely new food age: Chris van Tulleken, Ultra-Processed People: Why Do We All Eat Stuff That Isn’t Food…and Why Can’t We Stop?
(Cornerstone, 2023).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the normal distribution for BMI started skewing: Julia Belluz, “Here’s Why Obesity Grew So Quickly Worldwide, and Where That’s Starting to Change,” STAT, June 8, 2023, https://www.statnews.com/2023/06/08/bmi-slowdown-severe-obesity-glo bal-rates/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT took off worldwide: C. D. Fryar, M. D. Carroll, and J. Afful, “Prevalence of Overweight, Obesity, and Severe Obesity Among Adults Aged 20 and Over: United States, 1960–1962 Through 2017– 2018,” National Center for Health Statistics Health E-Stats, 2020, https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hestat/obesity-adult-17-18/obesity-adult.h tm; A. Rodgers, A.
Woodward, B. Swinburn, and W. H. Dietz, “Prevalence Trends Tell Us What Did Not Precipitate the US Obesity Epidemic,” Lancet Public Health 3, no. 4 (April 2018): e162—e163, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2468-2667(18)30021-5.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “obesogenic” and “toxic” food environment: Boyd Swinburn, Garry Egger, and Fezeela Raza, “Dissecting Obesogenic Environments: The Development and Application of a Framework for Identifying and Prioritizing Environmental Interventions for Obesity,” Preventative Medicine 29, no. 6, pt. 1 (1999): 563–570, https://doi.org/10.1006/pmed.1999.0585; Kelly D. Brownell and Katherine Battle Horgen, Food Fight: The Inside Story of the Food Industry, America’s Obesity Crisis, and What We Can Do About It (Contemporary Books, 2004); Garry Egger and Boyd Swinburn, “An ‘Ecological’Approach to the Obesity Pandemic,” British Medical Journal 315, no. 7106 (1997): 477–480, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.315.7106.477.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “nutrition transition”: Benjamin Caballero and Barry M. Popkin, eds., The Nutrition Transition: Diet and Disease in the Developing World (Academic Press, 2002).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “obesity transition”: L. M. Jaacks, S. Vandevijvere, A. Pan, et al., “The Obesity Transition: Stages of the Global Epidemic,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 7, no. 3 (2019): 231–240, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(19)30026-9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT easiest to see in immigrants: B. M. Popkin and J. R. Udry, “Adolescent Obesity Increases Significantly in Second and Third Generation U.S. Immigrants: The National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health,” Journal of Nutrition 128, no. 4 (1998): 701–706, https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/128.4.701; D. Bhatnagar, I. S. Anand, P. N.
Durrington, et al., “Coronary Risk Factors in People from the Indian Subcontinent Living in West London and Their Siblings in India,” Lancet 345, no. 8947 (1995): 405–409, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140- 6736(95)90398-4; M. S. Goel, E. P. McCarthy, R. S. Phillips, and C. C.
Wee, “Obesity Among US Immigrant Subgroups by Duration of Residence,” Journal of the American Medical Association 292, no. 23 (2004): 2860–2867, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.292.23.2860; D. S.
Lauderdale and P. J. Rathouz, “Body Mass Index in a US National Sample of Asian Americans: Effects of Nativity, Years Since Immigration and Socioeconomic Status,” International Journal of Obesity 24, no. 9 (2000): 1188–1194, https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ijo.0801365.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT both diseases rebounded: M. Franco, U. Bilal, P. Orduñez, et al., “Population-Wide Weight Loss and Regain in Relation to Diabetes Burden and Cardiovascular Mortality in Cuba 1980–2010: Repeated Cross Sectional Surveys and Ecological Comparison of Secular Trends,” British Medical Journal 346 (2013): f1515, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.f1515.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT researchers tracked shifts in a range of behaviors: K. D. Brownell, R.
Kersh, D. S. Ludwig, et al., “Personal Responsibility and Obesity: A Constructive Approach to a Controversial Issue,” Health Affairs 29, no. 3 (2010): 379–387, https://doi.org/10.1377/hlthaff.2009.0739.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a simultaneous uptick in obesity prevalence: Rodgers et al., “Prevalence Trends Tell Us.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT exacerbated the obesity epidemic: Marion Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (University of California Press, 2002).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT political focus has remained on individuals: T. Northcott, M. Lawrence, C.
Parker, B. Reeve, and P. Baker, “Regulatory Responses to Ultra-Processed Foods Are Skewed Towards Behaviour Change and Not Food System Transformation,” Nature Food (2025): 273–282, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-024-01101-y.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT survey of some three hundred policymakers: Rodgers et al., “Prevalence Trends Tell Us.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT paltry investment in research: James Tabery, Tyranny of the Gene: Personalized Medicine and Its Threat to Public Health (Knopf, 2023).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT less than 5 percent of the NIH’s budget: National Institutes of Health, Nutrition Research Report 2020–2021, 4, accessed February 5, 2025, https://dpcpsi.nih.gov/sites/default/files/NIHNutrition-Research-Report-20 20-2021-508.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT widely praised national dietary guidelines: Julia Belluz, “Brazil Has the Best Nutritional Guidelines in the World,” Vox, February 20, 2015, https://www.vox.com/2015/2/20/8076961/brazil-food-guide; Leora Eisen, “Brazil’s Revolutionary New Food Guide Focuses on How Food Is Made,” The Nature of Things, accessed March 18, 2025, https://www.cbc.ca/natureofthings/features/brazils-revolutionary-new-foo dguide-focuses-on-how-food-is-made.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT physician-researcher, Carlos Monteiro: C. A. Monteiro, “Nutrition and Health. The Issue Is Not Food, nor Nutrients, So Much as Processing,” Public Health Nutrition 12, no. 5 (2009): 729–731, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980009005291.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT he noticed something puzzling: Carlos Monteiro, interview with Julia Belluz, October 6, 2021.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Monteiro called for a paradigm shift: Monteiro, “Nutrition and Health.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT processing and formulation: C. A. Monteiro, G. Cannon, J. C. Moubarac, R. B. Levy, M. L. C.
Louzada, and P. C. Jaime, “The UN Decade of Nutrition, the NOVA Food Classification and the Trouble with Ultra-Processing,” Public Health Nutrition 21, no. 1 (2018): 5–17, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017000234. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT or even a chef: Claire Saffitz, “Gourmet Makes,” video, Bon Appétit, https://www.bonappetit.com/video/series/gourmet-makes.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT best-selling book: Michael Moss, Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us (Random House, 2013).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT recruited twenty people: K. D. Hall, A. Ayuketah, R. Brychta, et al., “Ultra-Processed Diets Cause Excess Calorie Intake and Weight Gain: An Inpatient Randomized Controlled Trial of Ad Libitum Food Intake,” Cell Metabolism 30, no. 1 (2019): 67–77 e3, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2019.05.008.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Similar to the diets of most Americans: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Food and Nutrition Service, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, “Average Healthy Eating Index-2020 Scores for the U.S.
Population—Total Ages 2 and Older and by Age Groups, WWEIA, NHANES 2017– 2018,” 2023, https://www.fns.usda.gov/cnpp/hei-scores-americans; “Scientific Report of the 2025 Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee,” Dietary Guidelines for Americans, U.S. Department of Agriculture, accessed March 20, 2025, https://www.dietaryguidelines.gov/sites/default/files/2024- 12/Scientific_Report_of_the_2025_Dietary_Guidelines_Advisory_Commi ttee_508c.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Diets heavy in UPFs: M. M. Lane, E. Gamage, S. Du, et al., “Ultra-Processed Food Exposure and Adverse Health Outcomes: Umbrella Review of Epidemiological Meta-Analyses,” British Medical Journal 384 (2024): e077310, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-077310; Alex E.
Henney, Conor S. Gillespie, Uazman Alam, et al., “High Intake of Ultra-Processed Food Is Associated with Dementia in Adults: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Observational Studies,” Journal of Neurology 271, no. 1 (2024): 198–210, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00415-023- 12033-1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Bradford Hill criteria: C. A. Monteiro, E. M. Steele, and G. Cannon, “Impact of Food UltraProcessing on Cardiometabolic Health: Definitions, Evidence, and Implications for Dietary Guidance,” Journal of the American Heart Association 13, no. 21 (2024): e035986, https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.124.035986.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the soft texture: C. G. Forde, M. Mars, and K. de Graaf, “Ultra-Processing or Oral Processing? A Role for Energy Density and Eating Rate in Moderating Energy Intake from Processed Foods,” Current Developments in Nutrition 4, no. 3 (2020): nzaa019, https://doi.org/10.1093/cdn/nzaa019.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Is it the flavor additives: D. M. Small and A. G. DiFeliceantonio, “Processed Foods and Food Reward,” Science 363, no. 6425 (2019): 346–347, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aav0556; Mark Schatzker, The Dorito Effect: The Surprising New Truth About Food and Flavor (Simon and Schuster, 2015); Mark Schatzker, The End of Craving: Recovering the Lost Wisdom of Eating Well (Simon and Schuster, 2021).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT too little protein: E. Martinez Steele, D. Raubenheimer, S. J. Simpson, L.
G. Baraldi, and C. A.
Monteiro, “Ultra-Processed Foods, Protein Leverage and Energy Intake in the USA,” Public Health Nutrition 21, no. 1 (2018): 114–124, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980017001574.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT make UPFs addictive: A. N. Gearhardt, N. B. Bueno, A. G.
DiFeliceantonio, C. A. Roberto, S.
Jiménez-Murcia, and F. Fernandez-Aranda, “Social, Clinical, and Policy Implications of UltraProcessed Food Addiction,” British Medical Journal 383 (2023): e075354, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2023-075354.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT he began to look for clues: T. L.
Fazzino, A. B. Courville, J. Guo, and K. D. Hall, “Ad Libitum Meal Energy Intake Is Positively Influenced by Energy Density, Eating Rate and Hyper-Palatable Food Across Four Dietary Patterns,” Nature Food 4, no.
2 (2023): 144–147, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-022-00688-4.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT well-known driver of calorie intake: Barbara J. Rolls, “The Relationship Between Dietary Energy Density and Energy Intake,” Physiology & Behavior 97, no. 5 (2009): 609–615, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2009.03.011; J. Philip Karl and Susan B. Roberts, “Energy Density, Energy Intake, and Body Weight Regulation in Adults,” Advances in Nutrition 5, no. 6 (2014): 835–850, https://doi.org/10.3945/an.114.007112.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT familiar names like Lunchables: K. H. Nguyen, S. A. Glantz, C. N.
Palmer, and L. A. Schmidt, “Tobacco Industry Involvement in Children’s Sugary Drinks Market,” British Medical Journal 364 (2019): l736, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.l736.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The tobacco-owned foods: T. L. Fazzino, D. Jun, L. Chollet-Hinton, and K. Bjorlie, “US Tobacco Companies Selectively Disseminated Hyper-Palatable Foods into the US Food System: Empirical Evidence and Current Implications,” Addiction 119, no. 1 (2024): 62–71, https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16332.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 70 percent of what’s available: S. Demeke, K. Rohde, L. Chollet-Hinton, C. Sutton, K. L. Kong, and T. L. Fazzino, “Change in Hyper-Palatable Food Availability in the US Food System over 30 Years: 1988–2018,” Public Health Nutrition 26, no. 1 (2023): 182–189, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980022001227.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT how drug addiction works: N. D. Volkow, G. F. Koob, and A. T. McLellan, “Neurobiologic Advances from the Brain Disease Model of Addiction,” New England Journal of Medicine 374, no. 4 (2016): 363–371, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMra1511480; R. A. Wise and M. A. Robble, “Dopamine and Addiction,” Annual Review of Psychology 71 (2020): 79–106, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010418-103337; D. J.
Nutt, A. Lingford-Hughes, D.
Erritzoe, and P. R. A. Stokes, “The Dopamine Theory of Addiction: 40 Years of Highs and Lows,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 16, (2015): 305–312, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3939.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT something similar goes on in the brains of people who become addicted: N. D. Volkow, R. A.
Wise, and R. Baler, “The Dopamine Motive System: Implications for Drug and Food Addiction,” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 18 (2017): 741–752, https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2017.130. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT landmark brain imaging study: G.-J. Wang, N. D. Volkow, J. Logan, et al., “Brain Dopamine and Obesity,” Lancet 357, no. 9253 (2001): 354–357, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(00)03643- 6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Kevin’s team recently tested these ideas: Valerie L. Darcey, Juen Guo, Meible Chi, et al., “Brain Dopamine Responses to Ultra-Processed Milkshakes Are Highly Variable and Not Significantly Related to Adiposity in Humans,” Cell Metabolism 37, no. 3 (2025): 616–628.e5, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2025.02.002.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT or even nicotine: K. P. Cosgrove, I. Esterlis, C. Sandiego, R. Petrulli, and E. D. Morris, “Imaging Tobacco Smoking with PET and SPECT,” in Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences 24 (2015): 1–17, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-13482-6_1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT we may learn that it works differently: Nutt et al., “The Dopamine Theory of Addiction: 40 Years of Highs and Lows.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT people with obesity had higher levels of basal dopamine: Valerie L.
Darcey, Juen Guo, Meible Chi, et al., “Striatal Dopamine Tone Is Positively Associated with Adiposity in Humans as Determined by PET Using Dual Dopamine Type-2 Receptor Antagonist Tracers,” Molecular Psychiatry (2025). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-025-02960-y.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the Yale Food Addiction Scale: A. N. Gearhardt, W. R. Corbin, and K. D.
Brownell, “Preliminary Validation of the Yale Food Addiction Scale,” Appetite 52, no. 2 (2009): 430–436, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2008.12.003.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the same scientific criteria used to identify tobacco products as addictive: A. N. Gearhardt and A.
G. DiFeliceantonio, “Highly Processed Foods Can Be Considered Addictive Substances Based on Established Scientific Criteria,” Addiction 118, no. 4 (2023): 589–598, https://doi.org/10.1111/add.16065.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Roughly 14 percent: D. R. S. Praxedes, A. E. Silva-Junior, M. L.
Macena, et al., “Prevalence of Food Addiction Determined by the Yale Food Addiction Scale and Associated Factors: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis,” European Eating Disorders Review 30, no. 2 (2022): 85–95, https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.2878.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT about 30 percent: “Correction to ‘Prevalence of Food Addiction Determined by the Yale Food Addiction Scale and Associated Factors: A Systematic Review with Meta-Analysis,’ ” European Eating Disorders Review 32, no. 3 (2024): 610–611, https://doi.org/10.1002/erv.3078.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT results from the first half of the participants: Kevin Hall, “Ultra-Processed Food: The Scope for Government Action,” Imperial College, presentation of results, YouTube, December 2, 2024, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YdG24uCkvbE&t=2334s.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT high insoluble fiber intake: D. J. Baer, W. V. Rumpler, C. W. Miles, and G. C. Fahey Jr., “Dietary Fiber Decreases the Metabolizable Energy Content and Nutrient Digestibility of Mixed Diets Fed to Humans,” Journal of Nutrition 127, no. 4 (1997): 579–586, https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/127.4.579.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT altering the gut microbiome: K. D. Corbin, E. A. Carnero, B. Dirks, et al., “Host-Diet-Gut Microbiome Interactions Influence Human Energy Balance: A Randomized Clinical Trial,” Nature Communications 14 (2023): 3161, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-023-38778-x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Some subcategories are clearly harmful: Zhangling Chen, Neha Khandpur, Clémence Desjardins, et al., “Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes: Three Large Prospective U.S. Cohort Studies,” Diabetes Care 46, no. 7 (2023): 1335–1344, https://doi.org/10.2337/dc22- 1993; Kenny Mendoza, Stephanie A.
Smith-Warnera, Sinara Laurini Rossato, et al., “UltraProcessed Foods and Cardiovascular Disease: Analysis of Three Large US Prospective Cohorts and a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies,” Lancet Regional Health Americas 37, 100859 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2024.100859; Reynalda Cordova, Vivian Viallon, Emma Fontvieille, et al., “Consumption of Ultra-Processed Foods and Risk of Multimorbidity of Cancer and Cardiometabolic Diseases: A Multinational Cohort Study,” Lancet Regional Health Europe 35, 100771 (2023), https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lanepe.2023.100771.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT how these foods might cause gut dysbiosis: K. A. Maki, M. N. Sack, and K. D. Hall, “UltraProcessed Foods: Increasing the Risk of Inflammation and Immune Dysregulation?” Nature Reviews Immunology 24, no. 7 (July 2024): 453–454, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41577-024-01049- x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than one hundred million people: Tara O’Neill Hayes and Rakeb Asres, “The Economic Costs of Poor Nutrition,” American Action Forum, March 9, 2022, https://www.americanactionforum.org/research/the-economic-costs-of-po or-nutrition/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 8: Purer Food “commerciogenic”: Dr. Chris van Tulleken, Supplementary Written Evidence, UK Parliament, April 30, 2024, https://committees.parliament.uk/writtenevidence/130662/pdf/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The oak tables: Deborah Blum, The Poison Squad: One Chemist’s Single-Minded Crusade for Food Safety at the Turn of the Twentieth Century (Penguin Press, 2018).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the men eat seasonal fare: Washington Correspondent, “Experiments in Food Preservatives Conducted by the Department of Agriculture,” Scientific American 88, no. 18 (May 2, 1903): 336–338, https://www.jstor.org/stable/24985694; “Poison Squad Escapes Federal Food Experts,” New York Times, May 22, 1904.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “martyrs to science”: Blum, The Poison Squad.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Candymakers laced their confections: Blum, The Poison Squad.
Interview and correspondence with Julia Belluz.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT focused on borax: Harvey W. Wiley, “Results of Borax Experiment,” U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry, Circular No. 15, 1904, https://archive.org/details/resultsofboraxex00wilerich.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT salicylic acid, formaldehyde, sulfuric acid: Blum, The Poison Squad.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the New York Times reported: “Poison Squad Escapes Federal Food Experts,” New York Times, May 22, 1904.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Sinclair’s The Jungle: Upton Sinclair, The Jungle (Doubleday, Page, 1906). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT regulatory guardrails: “Achievements in Public Health, 1900–1999: Safer and Healthier Foods,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 48, no. 40 (1999), https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/wk/mm4840.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT growing proportions: C. A. Monteiro, J. C. Moubarac, G. Cannon, S. W.
Ng, and B. Popkin, “UltraProcessed Products Are Becoming Dominant in the Global Food System,” Obesity Reviews 14, Suppl. 2 (2013): 21–28, https://doi.org/10.1111/obr.12107.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more Americans die every day: Jerold Mande, “Processed Foods Are Making Us Sick. It’s Time for the FDA and USDA to Step In,” Harvard Public Health, March 1, 2023, https://harvardpublichealth.org/policy-practice/processed-foods-make-us -sick-its-time-forgovernment-action/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT we did this recently with artificial trans fat: Angela Amico, Margo C.
Wootan, Michael F.
Jacobson, Cindy Leung, and Walter Willett, “The Demise of Artificial Trans Fat: A History of a Public Health Achievement,” Milbank Quarterly 99, no, 3 (2021): 746–770, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12515.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “1.3 percent of all NIH-funded research”: “NIH in the 21st Century: Ensuring Transparency and American Biomedical Leadership,” Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor & Pensions, May 9, 2024, https://www.help.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/nih_modernization_5924pdf.
pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT tried to close the research facilities: Catherine Boudreau and Helena Bottemiller Evich, “How Washington Keeps America Sick and Fat,” Politico, November 4, 2019, https://www.politico.com/news/agenda/2019/11/04/why-we-dont-know-w hat-to-eat-060299.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a lot of overlap: B. M. Popkin, D. R. Miles, L. S. Taillie, and E. K.
Dunford, “A Policy Approach to Identifying Food and Beverage Products That Are Ultra-Processed and High in Added Salt, Sugar and Saturated Fat in the United States: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of Packaged Foods,” Lancet Regional Health Americas 32 (2024): 100713, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lana.2024.100713.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT they eat more calories, sodium, saturated fat, and sugar: D. Martini, J. Godos, M. Bonaccio, P.
Vitaglione, and G. Grosso, “Ultra-Processed Foods and Nutritional Dietary Profile: A MetaAnalysis of Nationally Representative Samples,” Nutrients 13, no. 10 (2021), https://doi.org/10.3390/nu13103390.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “so broad that it borders on useless”: Nicola Guess, “Why Ultraprocessed Foods Aren’t Always Bad,” New York Times, December 16, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/12/16/opinion/ultraprocessed-food-nutritio n.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT This definition goes into effect in 2028: “Food Labeling: Nutrient Content Claims; Definition of Term ‘Healthy,’ ” Office of the Federal Register, December 27, 2024, https://www.federalregister.gov/documents/2024/12/27/2024-29957/foodlabeling-nutrientcontent-claims-definition-of-term-healthy; “Use of the ‘Healthy’ Claim on Food Labeling,” U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, January 16, 2025, https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-foodlabeling-and-critical-foods/use-ter m-healthy-food-labeling.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT marketing of unhealthy food: “Food Marketing Exposure and Power and Their Associations with Food-Related Attitudes, Beliefs and Behaviours: A Narrative Review,” World Health Organization, 2022, https://iris.who.int/bitstream/handle/10665/351521/9789240041783-eng.
pdf; “Marketing Exposed: A Global Public Health Threat for Food Policy,” Global Health Advocacy Incubator (GHAI)—Campaign for Tobacco-Free Kids (CTFK), November 2022, https://www.advocacyincubator.org/program-areas/food-and-nutrition/cou ntering-industryinterference/marketing-exposed-a-global-public-health-th reat-for-food-policy.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT close to $14 billion: “Food Marketing,” UConn Rudd Center for Food Policy and Health, accessed February 16, 2024, https://uconnruddcenter.org/research/food-marketing/#a1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Tax law in the United States incentivizes: “Tax Deductions for Marketing: How Much Can You Write Off?” Beckley & Associates, March 14, 2025, https://beckleyandassociates.com/taxdeductions-credits/tax-deductions-f or-marketing-and-advertising; “Major Food and Beverage Tax Savings Considerations,” CBIZ, November 29, 2022, https://www.cbiz.com/insights/article/major-food-and-beverage-tax-savin gs-considerations.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Research clearly shows: E.
Boyland, L. McGale, M. Maden, et al., “Association of Food and Nonalcoholic Beverage Marketing with Children and Adolescents’ Eating Behaviors and Health: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis,” JAMA Pediatrics 176, no. 7 (2022): e221037, https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2022.1037.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The teens were mystified: “Social Experiment: The Shocking Effects of Junk Food Advertising!” Bite Back, YouTube, October 17, 2019, https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TLf2gOrL1iM.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Chile also banned all food marketing to kids: Francesca R. Dillman Carpentier, Lindsey Smith Taillie, and Teresa Correa, “Chile’s Comprehensive Food Policy Offers Global Lesson in Tackling Unhealthy Foods,” Health Policy Watch, August 8, 2023, https://healthpolicywatch.news/chiles-comprehensive-food-policy/; “Marketing Ban Tackles TV Ads for Unhealthy Foods in Chile,” UNC Gillings School of Global Public Health, https://sph.unc.edu/sphnews/marketing-ban-tackles-tv-ads-for-unhealthy -foods-in-chile/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The UK government: “Junk Food Ad Ban Legislation Progresses to Curb Childhood Obesity,” GOV.UK, December 3, 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/junk-food-ad-banlegislation-progre sses-to-curb-childhood-obesity.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT proposed mandatory front-of-pack labels: “Front-of-Package Nutrition Labeling,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, January 14, 2025, https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-food-labeling-andcritical-foods/front-pa ckage-nutrition-labeling.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT manufacturers are fighting them: Sarah Todd, “How the FDA’s New Nutrition Labels Could Prod the Food Industry to Get Healthier,” STAT, January 15, 2025, https://www.statnews.com/2025/01/15/nutrition-facts-label-fda-front-of-pa ckage-backed-byscience-opposed-by-industry/; Andrew Jacobs, “F.D.A.
Proposes New Food Labels to Detail Sugar, Fat and Salt Levels,” New York Times, January 14, 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2025/01/14/health/fda-food-labels-sugar-fat-sal t.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT while also pushing back: Laura Reiley, “Food Fight: FDA Is Redefining ‘Healthy’ and Food Industry Is Pushing Back,” Washington Post, March 5, 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2023/03/05/fda-healthy-foodsugar/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT to make life work: Sarah Bowen, Joslyn Brenton, and Sinikka Elliott, Pressure Cooker: Why Home Cooking Won’t Solve Our Problems and What We Can Do About It (Oxford University Press, 2019).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT meal preppers and grocery shoppers: Katherine Schaeffer, “Among U.S.
Couples, Women Do More Cooking and Grocery Shopping Than Men,” Pew Research Center, September 24, 2019, https://www.pewresearch.org/short-reads/2019/09/24/among-u-s-couple s-women-do-morecooking-and-grocery-shopping-than-men/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT earliest days of food processing: Michael Moss, Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us (Random House, 2013); Laura Shapiro, Something from the Oven: Reinventing Dinner in 1950’s America (Viking, 2004).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT dozen donuts for 99 cents: Julia Belluz, “4 Fixes For the Astonishing Lack of Vegetables in the American Diet,” Vox, August 15, 2017, https://www.vox.com/2016/6/23/11975438/americanseat-more-vegetable s.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT drops to 7 percent: S. H. Lee, L. V. Moore, S. Park, D. M. Harris, and H.
M. Blanck, “Adults Meeting Fruit and Vegetable Intake Recommendations—United States, 2019,” Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 71 (2022): 1–9, http://dx.doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.mm7101a1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Foods like pizza: M. K. Hoy, T. Murayi, and A. J. Moshfegh, “Pizza Consumption in the U.S.: What We Eat in America, NHANES 2017-March 2020 Prepandemic,” Food Surveys Research Group Dietary Data Brief No. 62, November 2024, https://www.ars.usda.gov/ARSUserFiles/80400530/pdf/DBrief/62_Pizza_ Consumption_of_US_p opulation_1720.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reformulate a healthy pizza: E. Combet, A. Jarlot, K. E. Aidoo, and M. E.
Lean. “Development of a Nutritionally Balanced Pizza as a Functional Meal Designed to Meet Published Dietary Guidelines,” Public Health Nutrition 17, no. 11 (2014): 2577–2586, https://doi.org/10.1017/S1368980013002814.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT positive health impact: G. Masset, K. C. Mathias, A. Vlassopoulos, et al., “Modeled Dietary Impact of Pizza Reformulations in US Children and Adolescents,” PLOS One 11, no. 10 (2016): e0164197, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0164197.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reformulated Trix: Annie Gasparro, “Silly Rabbit! Original Trix with Artificial Colors Is Back After Customers Revolt,” Wall Street Journal, September 21, 2017, https://www.wsj.com/articles/sillyrabbit-original-trix-with-artificial-colors-is -back-after-customers-revolt-1506011635.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT legal scholars argue: Emily M. Broad Leib and Margot J. Pollans, “The New Food Safety,” California Law Review 107, no. 4 (2019): 1173–1248, https://doi.org/10.15779/Z38QR4NR0D.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT most effective at reducing tobacco consumption: A. Gilbert and J.
Cornuz, “Which Are the Most Effective and Cost-Effective Interventions for Tobacco Control?,” WHO Regional Office for Europe (Health Evidence Network report), 2003, https://iris.who.int/handle/10665/363754.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in nearly 120 countries: “Countries and Jurisdictions That Have Taxes on Sugar-Sweetened Beverages (SSBs),” Obesity Evidence Hub, https://www.obesityevidencehub.org.au/collections/prevention/countries-t hat-have-implementedtaxes-on-sugar-sweetened-beverages-ssbs.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Colombia recently went further: “Colombia’s Ultra-Processed Product Taxes,” Global Food Research Program—UNC Chapel Hill, accessed February 17, 2024, https://www.globalfoodresearchprogram.org/policy/colombias-ultra-proce ssed-product-taxes/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the quality of grocery purchases: Richard Volpe and Abigail Okrent, “Assessing the Healthfulness of Consumers’ Grocery Purchases,” EIB-102, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, November 2012, https://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/pub-details?
pubid=43682. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT immense purchasing power of supermarkets: Austin Frerick, Barons: Money, Power, and the Corruption of America’s Food Industry (Island Press, 2024), 158–164.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT doesn’t change consumption patterns: “The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts: Workshop Summary,” National Academies, 2009, https://www.nationalacademies.org/our-work/the-publichealth-effects-of-f ood-deserts-a-workshop. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Nourish, a program: “Small Businesses: An Overlooked Solution,” Nourish, University of California San Francisco, accessed February 17, 2024, https://nourish.ucsf.edu/about-mission.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In Brazil, kids already get: Jill Langlois, “School Lunches Are Brazil’s Secret—and Delicious— Weapon in Halting Hunger,” Goats and Soda, National Public Radio, January 8, 2024, https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2024/01/08/1222567378/thepandemic-sent-hungersoaring-in-brazil-theyre-fighting-back-with-school-l unc; Lindsey Smith Taillie, “Heat Waves and Droughts Are a Bonanza for Junk Food Companies,” New York Times, April 8, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/08/08/opinion/climate-change-junk-food.h tml.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 15 percent of calories: “PNAE National Meeting Proposes Changes to the Limit on Ultra-Processed Foods in School Meals,” World Food Programme, February 6, 2025, https://centrodeexcelencia.org.br/en/encontro-nacional-do-pnae-propoealteracoes-no-limite-deultraprocessados-na-alimentacao-escolar/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT at least two municipalities: “Advocates Hope Rio’s Ban on Ultra-Processed Foods in Schools Triggers Wave,” NCD Alliance, August 11, 2023, https://ncdalliance.org/newsevents/news/advocates-hope-rio%E2%80% 99s-ban-on-ultra-processed-foods-in-schools-triggerswave.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The government requires: A. Miyawaki, J. S. Lee, and Y. Kobayashi, “Impact of the School Lunch Program on Overweight and Obesity Among Junior High School Students: A Nationwide Study in Japan,” Journal of Public Health 41, no. 2 (2019): 362–370, https://doi.org/10.1093/pubmed/fdy095. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT great lengths to encourage: Trevor Felch, “Lunch at Google HQ Is as Insanely Awesome as You Thought,” March 6, 2020, https://www.seriouseats.com/lunch-at-google-insanely-awesome-asyou-t hought.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Shokuiku curriculum: E. Kibayashi and M. Nakade, “Associations Between Shokuiku During School Years, Well-Balanced Diets, and Eating and Lifestyle Behaviours in Japanese Females Enrolled in a University Registered Dietitian Course,” Nutrients 16, no. 4 (2024), 484, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu16040484.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 152 new preservative chemicals: Blum, The Poison Squad.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than ten thousand chemicals: Thomas G. Neltner, Neesha R.
Kulkarni, Heather M. Alger, et al., “Navigating the U.S. Food Additive Regulatory Program,” Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 10, no. 6 (2011): 342–368, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541- 4337.2011.00166.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT because of a loophole: P. A. Cohen and E. M. Broad Leib, “Ingesting Risk—the FDA and New Food Ingredients,” New England Journal of Medicine 391, no. 10 (2024): 875–877, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2403165; J. L. Pomeranz, E. M. Broad Leib, and D. Mozaffarian, “Regulation of Added Substances in the Food Supply by the Food and Drug Administration Human Foods Program,” American Journal of Public Health 114, no. 10 (October 2024): 1061– 1070, https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2024.307755.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 99 percent: Olivia Backhaus and Melanie Benesh, “EWG Analysis: Almost All New Food Chemicals Greenlighted by Industry, Not the FDA,” Environmental Working Group, April 13, 2022, https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news/2022/04/ewg-analysis-almost-al l-new-food-chemicalsgreenlighted-industry-not-fda.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT less than half of the chemicals: Tom Neltner, Klara Matouskova, and Maricel Maffini, “Broken GRAS: Companies Ignore FDA Draft Guidance; Bias & Conflicts of Interest Prevail in Safety Determinations,” Environmental Defense Fund, September 6, 2023, https://blogs.edf.org/health/2023/09/06/broken-gras-companies-ignore-fd a-draft-guidance-biasconflicts-of-interest-prevail-in-safety-determinations /; Maricel Maffini and Tom Neltner, “Broken GRAS: Secret GRAS Determinations May Outnumber Those Reviewed by FDA,” Environmental Defense Fund, April 13, 2023, https://blogs.edf.org/health/2023/04/13/brokengras-secret-gras-determin ations-may-outnumber-those-reviewed-by-fda/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It is impossible for FDA”: C.
Faustman, D. Aaron, N. Negowetti, and E. B. Leib, “Ten Years PostGAO Assessment, FDA Remains Uninformed of Potentially Harmful GRAS Substances in Foods,” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 61, no. 8 (2021): 1260–1268, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2020.1756217.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A recent example: Elizabeth Segran and Amy Farley, “Daily Harvest Recall: How a Rare New Ingredient Sent Customers to the ER,” Fast Company, June 22, 2023, https://www.fastcompany.com/90908456/daily-harvest-food-startup-toxictara-flour-recall.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The last time we checked: A. G. Chittiboyina, Z. Ali, B. Avula, et al., “Is Baikiain in Tara Flour a Causative Agent for the Adverse Events Associated with the Recalled Frozen French Lentil & Leek Crumbles Food Product?—A Working Hypothesis,” Chemical Research in Toxicology 36, no. 6 (2023): 818–821, https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.chemrestox.3c00100.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Two recent examples: Adrienne Crezo, “BVO: The FDA Finally Bans Brominated Vegetable Oil,” Center for Science in the Public Interest, July 2, 2024, https://www.cspinet.org/cspi-news/bvofda-finally-bans-brominated-veget able-oil; Julia Belluz, “Why It Took the FDA Nearly 40 Years to Ban Trans Fats,” Vox, July 17, 2015, https://www.vox.com/2015/6/17/8793937/why-fdabanned-trans-fats.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT affect thyroid function: Tom Neltner, “Too Many Young Children Get Too Much Perchlorate from Food,” Environmental Defense Fund, January 27, 2017, https://blogs.edf.org/health/2017/01/27/too-many-young-children-get-toomuch-perchloratefrom-food/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT oats, flour, and spices: “Perchlorate in Food,” Environmental Defense Fund, November 15, 2018, https://www.edf.org/health/perchlorate-food.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT degradation product: M. V.
Maffini, L. Trasande, and T. G. Neltner, “Perchlorate and Diet: Human Exposures, Risks, and Mitigation Strategies,” Current Environmental Health Reports 3 (2016): 107–117, https://doi.org/10.1007/s40572-016-0090-3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chemicals present in trace amounts: “A Food Labeling Guide: Guidance for Industry,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, January 2013, https://www.fda.gov/files/food/published/FoodLabeling-Guide-%28PDF% 29.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “likely harmful to human health”: “Cosmetic Products Containing Methylene Chloride,” U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, February 28, 2025, https://www.fda.gov/consumers/health-fraudscams/cosmetic-products-co ntaining-methylene-chloride.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT decaf coffee: Zachary Goldstein, “EPA Banned Methylene Chloride, But It’s Still Used In Foods,” Center for Science in the Public Interest, May 23, 2024, https://www.cspinet.org/cspi-news/epabanned-methylene-chloride-its-still -used-foods; Kristen Rogers, “Is Decaf Coffee Safe to Drink?
Experts Weigh In on Claims by Health Advocacy Groups,” CNN, April 17, 2024, https://edition.cnn.com/2024/04/04/health/decaf-coffee-methylene-chlori de-cancerwellness/index.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Only one of the 877 notices: Maricel V. Maffini and Thomas G. Neltner, “Op-ed: How the FDA Ignores the Law When Approving New Chemical Additives to Food,” December 23, 2020, https://www.ehn.org/health-issues-associated-with-food-additives-26496 20272.html; T. G.
Neltner, H. M. Alger, J. E. Leonard, and M. V. Maffini, “Data Gaps in Toxicity Testing of Chemicals Allowed in Food in the United States.” Reproductive Toxicology 42 (December 2013): 85–94, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.reprotox.2013.07.023.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Small amounts of arsenic: “ToxFAQs™ for Arsenic,” Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, accessed January 20, 2025, https://wwwn.cdc.gov/TSP/ToxFAQs/ToxFAQsDetails.aspx?faqid=19&tox id=3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT excessive water consumption: G.
K. Rangan, N. Dorani, M. M. Zhang, et al., “Clinical Characteristics and Outcomes of Hyponatraemia Associated with Oral Water Intake in Adults: A Systematic Review.” BMJ Open 11, no. 12 (2021): e046539, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen2020-046539.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Global revenues: Martien Van Nieuwkoop, “Do the Costs of the Global Food System Outweigh Its Monetary Value?” World Bank Blogs, June 17, 2019, https://blogs.worldbank.org/en/voices/docosts-global-food-system-outwei gh-its-monetary-value; “Valuing the Global Food System,” Planet Tracker, February 21, 2023, https://planet-tracker.org/valuing-the-global-food-system/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The UPF industry spent the most: H. Chung, K. Cullerton, and J.
Lacy-Nichols, “Mapping the Lobbying Footprint of Harmful Industries: 23 Years of Data from OpenSecrets,” Milbank Quarterly 102, no. 1 (2024): 212–232, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12686.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Marion Nestle puts it: Bethany McLean and Luigi Zingales, hosts, Capitalisn’t, podcast, season 2, episode 104, “The Money Behind Ultra-Processed Foods, with Marion Nestle,” https://capitalisnt.com/episodes/the-big-money-behind-ultra-processed-f oods-with-marion-nestleGxa34IRC/transcript.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT occasional voluntary nutrition policies: “Sodium Reduction in the Food Supply,” U.S. Food and Drug Administration, November 1, 2024, https://www.fda.gov/food/nutrition-food-labeling-andcritical-foods/sodiumreduction-food-supply; A. A. Musicus, J. Xu, J. T. Kannarkat, and P.
Lurie, “Appraising the FDA’s Sodium Reduction Efforts,” Journal of the American Medical Association Viewpoint, published online March 24, 2025, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2025.1762.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT nearly seven hundred policies: D. R. Z. Theis and M. White, “Is Obesity Policy in England Fit for Purpose? Analysis of Government Strategies and Policies, 1992–2020,” Milbank Quarterly 99, no. 1 (2021): 126–170, https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12498.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT yet to make an appreciable dent: “Global Obesity Prevalence,” World Obesity, accessed January 30, 2025, https://data.worldobesity.org/country/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “MAHA moms”: Alaina Demopoulos, “Rise of the Maha Moms: The Momfluencers Embracing RFK’s Push for a ‘Healthier’America,” The Guardian, January 13, 2025, https://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2025/jan/13/rfk-jr-moms-health -trump; Elaine Godfrey, “The Wellness Women Are on the March,” The Atlantic, December 13, 2024, https://www.theatlantic.com/politics/archive/2024/12 /wellness-rfk-washington/680977.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 9: Imprecision Nutrition?
his aphorism: Michael Pollan, In Defense of Food: An Eater’s Manifesto (Penguin Press, 2008).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT invested hundreds of millions of dollars: “Nestlé Health Science Expands into Personalized Nutrition with Acquisition of Persona™,” Nestlé, August 22, 2019, https://www.nestle.com/media/news/nestle-health-science-acquisition-pe rsona; “Bayer Acquires Majority Stake in Care/of,” Bayer, November 17, 2020, https://www.bayer.com/media/enus/bayer-acquires-majority-stake-in-car eof/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The number of businesses grew: S. Rogus and P. Lurie, “Personalized Nutrition: Aligning Science, Regulation, and Marketing,” Health Affairs Scholar 2, no. 9 (2024): qxae107, https://doi.org/10.1093/haschl/qxae107. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT $50 billion by 2032: Rogus and Lurie, “Personalized Nutrition.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT called out precision nutrition: “Report to the President: A Vision for Advancing Nutrition Science in the United States,” Executive Office of the President—President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology, The White House, September 2024, accessed February 14, 2025, https://bidenwhitehouse.archives.gov/wp-content/uploads/2024/09/PCAS T-Report-onAdvancing-Nutrition-Science_20SEPT2024.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 70 percent of its members: Henry Mance, “Tim Spector and the Cult of Zoe,” Financial Times, January 4, 2024, https://www.ft.com/content/abe98fe9-bf58-461b-aa9a-313ed9a49f82.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 94 percent: A. Keshet, S. Shilo, A. Godneva, et al., “CGMap: Characterizing Continuous Glucose Monitor Data in Thousands of Non-Diabetic Individuals,” Cell Metabolism 35, no. 5 (2023): 758–769 e3, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cmet.2023.04.002.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT influential study: D. Zeevi, T.
Korem, N. Zmora, et al., “Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses,” Cell 163, no. 5 (2015): 1079–1094, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.001.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a study from the founders of Zoe: S. E. Berry, A. M. Valdes, D. A. Drew, et al., “Human Postprandial Responses to Food and Potential for Precision Nutrition,” Nature Medicine 26, no. 6 (2020): 964–973, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-020-0934-0.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Wall Street Journal proclaimed: Sara Ashley O’Brien, “Is Glucose the New Gluten? Inside the Blood-Sugar Health Craze,” Wall Street Journal, January 25, 2024, https://ww.wsj.com/health/wellness/glucose-goddess-method-jessie-inch auspe-cgm-ea0e3135.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Jessie Inchauspé—aka the “Glucose Goddess”: Glucose Goddess, accessed February 14, 2024, https://www.glucosegoddess.com/. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT changed her life: Glucose Revolution, “Glucose Goddess on GLUCOSE MONITORS: The Good, the Bad, the Ugly,” episode 10 of 18, YouTube, April 10, 2024, https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=NmI6iPDfo6g.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT simple foods and beverages: Zeevi et al., “Personalized Nutrition”; Berry et al., “Human Postprandial Responses.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CGMs systematically overestimated blood glucose: K. M. Hutchins, J. A.
Betts, D. Thompson, A.
Hengist, and J. T. Gonzalez, “Continuous Glucose Monitor Overestimates Glycemia, with the Magnitude of Bias Varying by Postprandial Test and Individual—a Randomized Crossover Trial,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 121, no. 5 (ahead of print, February 26, 2025): 1025– 1034, https://doi.org /10.1016/j.ajcnut.2025.02.024.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In the first, he monitored: R. Howard, J. Guo, and K. D. Hall, “Imprecision Nutrition? Different Simultaneous Continuous Glucose Monitors Provide Discordant Meal Rankings for Incremental Postprandial Glucose in Subjects Without Diabetes,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 112, no. 4 (2020): 1114–1119, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqaa198.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT For the second paper: A. Hengist, J. A. Ong, K. McNeel, J. Guo, and K. D. Hall, “Imprecision Nutrition?
Intraindividual Variability of Glucose Responses to Duplicate Presented Meals in Adults Without Diabetes,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 121, no. 1 (2025): 74–82, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024 .10.007.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT studies that feature simple meals known to vary widely: Jordi Merino, Inbar Linenberg, Kate M.
Bermingham, et al., “Validity of Continuous Glucose Monitoring for Categorizing Glycemic Responses to Diet: Implications for Use in Personalized Nutrition,” The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 115, no. 6, (2022): 1569-1576, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqac026. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002916522002829; Zeevi et al., “Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses”; Berry et al., “Human Postprandial Responses to Food and Potential for Precision Nutrition.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT High-glycemic-load foods: K. Foster-Powell, S. H. Holt, and J. C.
Brand-Miller, “International Table of Glycemic Index and Glycemic Load Values: 2002,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 76, no. 1 (2002): 5–56, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/76.1.5.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in observational research: D. J. A. Jenkins, W. C. Willett, S. Yusuf, et al., “Association of Glycaemic Index and Glycaemic Load with Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, and All-Cause Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Mega Cohorts of More Than 100,000 Participants,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 12, no. 2 (2024): 107–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213- 8587(23)00344-3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the FDA recently allowed: “FDA Clears First Over-the-Counter Continuous Glucose Monitor,” U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, March 5, 2024, https://www.fda.gov/news-events/pressannouncements/fda-clears-first-o ver-counter-continuous-glucose-monitor.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT to fuel working muscles: Keith N. Frayn, Understanding Human Metabolism (Cambridge University Press, 2022).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT meaningful changes: M. J. Dalby, “Questioning the Foundations of the Gut Microbiota and Obesity,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 378, no. 1888 (2023): 20220221, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb .2022.0221.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT moderately useful: Q. Guo, J. Z. Goldenberg, C. Humphrey, R. El Dib, and B. C. Johnston, “Probiotics for the Prevention of Pediatric Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews no. 4 (2019): CD004827, https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD004827.pub5.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT generally recommended: M. Rein, O. Ben-Yacov, A. Godneva, et al., “Effects of Personalized Diets by Prediction of Glycemic Responses on Glycemic Control and Metabolic Health in Newly Diagnosed T2DM: A Randomized Dietary Intervention Pilot Trial,” BMC Medicine 20, no. 1 (2022): 56, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-022-02254-y; O. Ben-Yacov, A. Godneva, M. Rein, et al., “Personalized Postprandial Glucose Response-Targeting Diet Versus Mediterranean Diet for Glycemic Control in Prediabetes,” Diabetes Care 44, no. 9 (September 2021): 1980–1991, https://doi.org/10.2337/dc21-0162; D. Zeevi, T. Korem, N.
Zmora, et al., “Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses,” Cell 163, no. 5 (November 19, 2015): 1079–1094, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cell.2015.11.001.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The things that kill people”: “The Top 10 Causes of Death,” World Health Organization, August 7, 2024, https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/the-top-10-causes-of-d eath.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT at least a dozen: T. M. Wolever, “Personalized Nutrition by Prediction of Glycemic Responses: Garbage in—> Garbage Out,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 121, no. 1 (Jan 2025): 1–2, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2024.11.004.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Preventomics, one of the largest: M. A. Aldubayan, K. Pigsborg, S. M. O.
Gormsen, et al., “A Double-Blinded, Randomized, Parallel Intervention to Evaluate Biomarker-Based Nutrition Plans for Weight Loss: The PREVENTOMICS Study,” Clinical Nutrition 41, no. 8 (2022): 1834–1844, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2022 .06.032.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Researchers have linked: E. B.
Levitan, Y. Song, E. S. Ford, and S. Liu, “Is Nondiabetic Hyperglycemia a Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease? A Meta-Analysis of Prospective Studies,” Archives of Internal Medicine 164, no. 19 (2004): 2147–2155, https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.164.19.2147; D. J. A.
Jenkins, W. C. Willett, S. Yusuf, et al., “Association of Glycaemic Index and Glycaemic Load with Type 2 Diabetes, Cardiovascular Disease, Cancer, and All-Cause Mortality: A Meta-Analysis of Mega Cohorts of More Than 100 000 Participants,” Lancet Diabetes & Endocrinology 12, no. 2 (February 2024): 107–118, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2213-8587(23)00344-3; A. Hjort, D. Iggman, and F. Rosqvist, “Glycemic Variability Assessed Using Continuous Glucose Monitoring in Individuals Without Diabetes and Associations with Cardiometabolic Risk Markers: A Systematic Review and MetaAnalysis,” Clinical Nutrition 43, no. 4 (April 2024): 915–925, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clnu.2024.02.014.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT no consensus on what constitutes meaningful: M. Belli, A. Bellia, D.
Sergi, L. Barone, D. Lauro, and F. Barilla, “Glucose Variability: A New Risk Factor for Cardiovascular Disease,” Acta Diabetologica 60, no. 10 (2023): 1291–1299, https://doi.org/10.1007/s00592-023-02097-w.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Other independent randomized precision nutrition trials: A. Y. Kharmats, C. Popp, L. Hu, et al., “A Randomized Clinical Trial Comparing Low-Fat with Precision Nutrition-Based Diets for Weight Loss: Impact on Glycemic Variability and HbA1c,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 118, no. 2 (2023): 443–451, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajcnut.2023.05.026.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT retrospectively analyzed existing data: M. Dopler Nelson, P. Prabakar, V.
Kondragunta, K. S.
Kornman, and C. D. Gardner, “Genetic Phenotypes Predict Weight Loss Success: The Right Diet Does Matter,” paper presented at the joint conference of the 50th Cardiovascular Disease Epidemiology and Prevention and Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism, March 2–3, 2010, San Francisco, CA.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT similar amounts: C. D. Gardner, J. F. Trepanowski, L. C. Del Gobbo, et al., “Effect of Low-Fat Vs.
Low-Carbohydrate Diet on 12-Month Weight Loss in Overweight Adults and the Association with Genotype Pattern or Insulin Secretion: The DIETFITS Randomized Clinical Trial,” Journal of the American Medical Association 319, no. 7 (2018): 667–679, https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2018.0245.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reducing the glycemic load: O.
Ben-Yacov et al., “Personalized Postprandial Glucose ResponseTargeting Diet.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Zoe’s clinical trial: K. M. Bermingham, I. Linenberg, L. Polidori, et al., “Effects of a Personalized Nutrition Program on Cardiometabolic Health: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Nature Medicine 30, 1888–1897 (2024), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-02951-6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT science writers questioned: Margaret McCartney and Deborah Cohen, “Does the METHOD Study Show That ZOE Works?,” British Medical Journal, August 2, 2024, https://www.bmj.com/content/386/bmj.q1720.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Zoe’s chief scientist Sarah Berry: “Right of Reply ZOE,” BMJ, July 26, 2024, https://www.bmj.com/content/bmj/386/bmj.q1720.full.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in a Nature Metabolism commentary: N. Guess, “Big Data and Personalized Nutrition: The Key Evidence Gaps,” Nature Metabolism 6, no. 8 (2024): 1420–1422, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255- 023-00960-2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT personalized approaches can help people stick to generic: Carlos Celis-Morales, Katherine M.
Livingstone, Cyril F.M. Marsaux, et al., “Effect of Personalized Nutrition on Health-Related Behaviour Change: Evidence from the Food4me European Randomized Controlled Trial,” International Journal of Epidemiology 46, no. 2 (2016): 578-88.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyw186.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “That’s a big miscue”: Eric Topol, “The A.I. Diet,” New York Times, March 2, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/2019/03/02/opinion/sunday/diet-artificial-intellig ence-diabetes.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT recent analysis paper: Rogus and Lurie, “Personalized Nutrition.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Businessweek uncovered: Rina Raphael, “Is This Microbiome Startup Selling a Wellness Fantasy?,” Businessweek, October 30, 2023, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2023-10-30/viomegut-test-mi xes-microbiome-science-with-wellness-theater.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT than our genes: James Tabery, Tyranny of the Gene: Personalized Medicine and Its Threat to Public Health (Knopf, 2023).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT strategic plan: “2020–2030 Strategic Plan for NIH Nutrition Research,” National Institutes of Health, last reviewed December 14, 2023, https://dpcpsi.nih.gov/onr/strategic-plan.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT roughly $170 million: “Nutrition for Precision Health, Powered by the All of Us Research Program,” National Institutes of Health, last reviewed December 2, 2024, https://commonfund.nih.gov/nutritionforprecisionhealth; “NIH Awards $170 Million for Precision Nutrition Study,” National Institutes of Health, January 20, 2022, https://www.nih.gov/news-events/news-releases/nih-awards-170-millionprecision-nutritionstudy.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT only one small, short-term randomized trial comparing a U.S. Dietary Guidelines diet: S.
Krishnan, S. H. Adams, L. H. Allen, et al., “A Randomized Controlled-Feeding Trial Based on the Dietary Guidelines for Americans on Cardiometabolic Health Indexes,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 108, no. 2 (2018): 266–278, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqy113.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Another large, long-term Spanish study: R. Estruch, E. Ros, J.
Salas-Salvado, et al., “Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts,” New England Journal of Medicine 378, no. 25 (2018): e34, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1800389; D. Jenkins, J. Sievenpiper, and P. Jones, “Primary Prevention of Cardiovascular Disease with a Mediterranean Diet Supplemented with Extra-Virgin Olive Oil or Nuts,” New England Journal of Medicine 379, no. 14 (2018): 1387–1388, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMc1809971.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a trial that it favorably shifted: Alice C. Creedon, Hannah Bernard, Federica Amati, et al., “A Diverse High-Fibre Plant-Based Dietary Intervention Improves Gut Microbiome Composition, Gut Symptoms, Energy and Hunger in Healthy Adults: A Randomised Controlled Trial,” MedRxiv, https://www.medrxiv.org/content/10.1101/2024.07.02.24309816v1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 10: Vitamania son of tenant farmers: Richard Ahrens, “William Prout (1785–1850) A Biographical Sketch,” Journal of Nutrition 107, no. 1 (1977): 15–23, https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0022316623270170.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “A diet, to be complete”: Barbara Orland, “The Invention of Nutrients—William Prout, Digestion and Alimentary Substances in the 1820s,” Food & History 8, no. 1 (2010): 149–168, https://doi.org/10.1484/J.FOOD.1.100977.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT invention of the nutrient: Orland, “Invention of Nutrients.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT paid in salt: Kenneth F. Kiple and Kriemhild Coneè Ornelas, eds., The Cambridge World History of Food, 2 vols. (Cambridge University Press, 2000).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT stunning array of functions: John E. Hall, Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 13th ed. (Elsevier, 2016).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “purified diets”: Elmer Verner McCollum, A History of Nutrition; the Sequence of Ideas in Nutrition Investigations (Houghton Mifflin, 1957), 211–215.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT twelve ailing sailors: Stephen R. Brown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (St. Martin’s Press, 2005), chap. 5.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “theory to influence and pervert the judgement”: U. Trohler, “Lind and Scurvy: 1747 to 1795,” Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 98, no.
11 (Nov 2005): 519–522, https://doi.org/10.1177/014107680509801120.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT didn’t settle the question: K. J.
Carpenter, “The Discovery of Vitamin C,” Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 61, no. 3 (2012): 259–264, https://doi.org/10.1159/000343121; M. Harrison, “Scurvy on Sea and Land: Political Economy and Natural History, c. 1780—c. 1850,” Journal for Maritime Research 15, no. 1 (2013): 7–25, https://doi.org/10.1080/21533369.2013.783167.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Illness arose from imbalances: Mark Grant, Galen: On Food and Diet (Routledge, 2000).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT issue regular citrus doses: M. Bartholomew, “James Lind’s Treatise of the Scurvy (1753),” Postgraduate Medical Journal 78, no. 925 (2002): 695–696, https://doi.org/10.1136/pmj.78.925.695.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Liebig’s protein theory: Carpenter, “The Discovery of Vitamin C.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT shortage of carbon dioxide: Kenneth J. Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge University Press, 1986).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “nervous debility”: Harrison, “Scurvy on Sea and Land.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT supplanted humoral theory: Sherwin B. Nuland, Doctors: The Biography of Medicine (Knopf, 1988).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT These lifesaving breakthroughs: R. D. Semba, “The Long, Rocky Road to Understanding Vitamins,” World Review of Nutrition and Dietetics 104 (2012): 65–105, https://www.academia.edu/93708918/The_long_rocky_road_to_understa nding_vitamins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT defeat Napoleon: Andrew George, “How the British Defeated Napoleon with Citrus Fruit,” The Conversation, May 19, 2016, https://theconversation.com/how-the-british-defeated-napoleonwith-citrus -fruit-58826. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chemically isolate: A.
Maltz, “Casimer Funk, Nonconformist Nomenclature, and Networks Surrounding the Discovery of Vitamins,” Journal of Nutrition 143, no. 7 (July 2013): 1013–1020, https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.112.171827.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an urgent threat: K. J. Carpenter, “The Discovery of Thiamin,” Annals of Nutrition and Metabolism 61, no. 3 (2012): 219–223, https://doi.org/10.1159/000343109.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT series of painstaking experiments: K. J. Carpenter and B. Sutherland, “Eijkman’s Contribution to the Discovery of Vitamins,” Journal of Nutrition 125, no. 2 (February 1995): 155–163, https://doi.org/10.1093/jn/125.2.155; Kenneth J. Carpenter, Beriberi, White Rice, and Vitamin B: A Disease, a Cause, and a Cure (University of California Press, 2000).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT left behind an early diet war: J. Verhoef, H. Snippe, and H. S. L. M.
Nottet, “Christiaan Eijkman.
First Bacteriologist at Utrecht University, Nobel Laureate for His Work on Vitamins,” Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 75, no. 3 (April 1999): 165–169, https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1001751522263.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT use a mammal: Carpenter, “The Discovery of Vitamin C.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT fed the surviving sick animals: A. Holst and T. Frölich, “Experimental Studies Relating to ‘ShipBeri-Beri’ and Scurvy,” Journal of Hygiene (London) 7, no. 5 (October 1907): 634–671, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0022172400033623.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT later named vitamin C: J. L. Svirbely and A. Szent-Gyorgyi, “The Chemical Nature of Vitamin C,” Biochemical Journal 27, no. 1 (1933): 279–285, https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16745082.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT thousandths of a gram: Christopher T. Walsh and Yi Tang, The Chemical Biology of Human Vitamins (Royal Society of Chemistry, 2019).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Humans can’t perform the last step of vitamin C synthesis: M. C. De Tullio, “The Mystery of Vitamin C,” Nature Education 3, no. 9 (2010): 48, https://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/the-mystery-of-vitamin-c-1416 7861/; T. C. Hornung and H. K. Biesalski, “Glut-1 Explains the Evolutionary Advantage of the Loss of Endogenous Vitamin C-Synthesis: The Electron Transfer Hypothesis,” Evolution, Medicine, and Public Health 2019, no. 1 (2019): 221–231, https://doi.org/10.1093/emph/eoz024.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT thirteen known human “essential vitamins”: Walsh and Tang, Chemical Biology of Human Vitamins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT we literally come apart: P. P. Hujoel and M. L. A. Hujoel, “Vitamin C and Scar Strength: Analysis of a Historical Trial and Implications for Collagen-Related Pathologies,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 115, no. 1 (January 11, 2022): 8–17, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/nqab262; Jonathan Lamb, Scurvy: The Disease of Discovery (Princeton University Press, 2017).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Vitamin A, in milk and liver products: Lisa A. Urry, Michael Cain, Steven Wasserman, and Peter Minorsky, Campbell Biology in Focus, 2nd ed.
(Pearson, 2016).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Vitamin K: Walsh and Tang, Chemical Biology of Human Vitamins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT won Nobel Prizes: Kenneth Carpenter, “The Nobel Prize and the Discovery of Vitamins,” Nobel Prize, accessed February 20, 2025, https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/themes/the-nobel-prizeand-the-discov ery-of-vitamins/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT National food fortification: J. R. Backstrand, “The History and Future of Food Fortification in the United States: A Public Health Perspective,” Nutrition Reviews 60, no. 1 (Jan 2002): 15–26, https://doi.org/10.1301/002966402760240390; Jessica Samuels, “What Type of Salt Should You Buy? Rethinking 1924 Food Fortification Policy in 2024,” The Petrie-Flom Center for Health Law Policy, Biotechnology, and Bioethics at Harvard Law School, November 16, 2024, https://petrieflom.law.harvard.edu/2024/11/16/what-type-of-salt-should-y ou-buy-rethinking1924-food-fortification-policy-in-2024/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT rickets: G. Jones, “100 Years of Vitamin D: Historical Aspects of Vitamin D,” Endocrine Connections 11, no. 4 (April 22, 2022), https://doi.org/10.1530/EC-21-0594.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT about 4 percent: Saloni Dattani, Fiona Spooner, Hannah Ritchie, and Max Roser, “Child and Infant Mortality,” Our World in Data, accessed February 20, 2025, https://ourworldindata.org/childmortality.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “ ‘Value the Vitamins’ ”: Sybill Smith, “The Vitamin Primer,” Ladies’ Home Journal, September 1930.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Linus Pauling: Linus Pauling, Vitamin C and the Common Cold (Freeman, 1970); Ewan Cameron and Linus Pauling, Cancer and Vitamin C: A Discussion of the Nature, Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of Cancer with Special Reference to the Value of Vitamin C, updated and expanded ed.
(Camino Books, 1993).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT vitamin C evangelist: Vajda Tamás, “Effects of the Discovery of Vitamin C on the Paprika Industry and the Economy of the Southern Part of the Hungarian Great Plain,” in The Intellectual Heritage of Albert Szent-Györgyi 2 (Publishing Department University of Szeged, 2014).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT roughly $150 billion: O. Djaoudene, A. Romano, Y. D. Bradai, et al., “A Global Overview of Dietary Supplements: Regulation, Market Trends, Usage During the COVID-19 Pandemic, and Health Effects,” Nutrients 15, no. 15 (2023): 3320, https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15153320; “Vitamins and Supplements Market Size, Share & Industry Analysis, by Type (Multivitamins, Calcium Supplements, Pediatric Supplements, and Others), Form (Capsule, Tablet, Powder, and Liquid & Gel), Distribution Channel (Supermarkets, Convenience Stores, Specialty Stores, and Online Retails), and Regional Forecast, 2024–2032,” Fortune Business Insights, last updated March 17, 2025, https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/vitamins-and-supplements-mar ket104051.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reduce the risk of catching the sniffles: H. Hemila and E. Chalker, “Vitamin C for Preventing and Treating the Common Cold,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, no. 1 (January 31, 2013), https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD000980.pub4. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT third of American adults: “Multivitamin/Mineral Supplements,” National Institutes of Health, Office of Dietary Supplements, updated July 17, 2024, https://ods.od.nih.gov/factsheets/MVMSHealthProfessional/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT twenty-one thousand adults: Manish D. Paranjpe, Alfred C. Chin, Ishan Paranjpe, et al., “SelfReported Health Without Clinically Measurable Benefits Among Adult Users of Multivitamin and Multimineral Supplements: A Cross-Sectional Study,” BMJ Open 10, no. 11 (November 4, 2020): e039119, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-039119.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT four hundred thousand participants: Eliseo Guallar, Saverio Stranges, Cynthia Mulrow, et al., “Enough Is Enough: Stop Wasting Money on Vitamin and Mineral Supplements,” Annals of Internal Medicine 159, no.
12 (December 17, 2013): 850–851, https://doi.org/10.7326/0003- 4819-159-12-201312170-00011.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT antioxidant supplements: Goran Bjelakovic, Dimitrinka Nikolova, Lise Lotte Gluud, Rosa G.
Simonetti, and Christian Gluud, “Antioxidant Supplements for Prevention of Mortality in Healthy Participants and Patients with Various Diseases,” Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2012, no. 3 (March 14, 2012): CD007176, https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD007176.pub2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Vitamin D supplementation: Roger Bouillon, Despoina Manousaki, Cliff Rosen, Katerina Trajanoska, Fernando Rivadeneira, and J. Brent Richards, “The Health Effects of Vitamin D Supplementation: Evidence from Human Studies,” Nature Reviews Endocrinology 18, no. 2 (2022): 96–110, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41574-021-00593-z.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT overdose of vitamin D: Emily Coady-Stemp, “Surrey Coroner Calls for Change After 89-Year-Old’s Fatal Vitamin D Overdose,” BBC, February 29, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-englandsurrey-68436576.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT eighty-five thousand products: Catherine Price, Vitamania: Our Obsessive Quest for Nutritional Perfection (Penguin Press, 2015). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Julia and data journalist Soo Oh combed through: Julia Belluz and Soo Oh, “The Hidden Drugs in Your Favorite Supplements,” Vox, January 6, 2016, https://www.vox.com/a/supplements.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT without any requirement for pre-approval: Rima D. Apple, Vitamania: Vitamins in American Culture (Rutgers University Press, 1996).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT At key moments: Apple, Vitamania.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT twenty-three thousand emergency department visits: Andrew I. Geller, Nadine Shehab, and Nina J. Weidle, “Emergency Department Visits for Adverse Events Related to Dietary Supplements,” New England Journal of Medicine 373, no. 16 (October 15, 2015): 1531–1540, https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMsa1504267.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT forget to tell: Jennifer R. Guzman, Debora A. Paterniti, Yihang Liu, and Derjung M. Tarn, “Factors Related to Disclosure and Nondisclosure of Dietary Supplements in Primary Care, Integrative Medicine, and Naturopathic Medicine,” Journal of Family Medicine and Disease Prevention 5, no. 4 (2019), https://doi.org/10.23937/2469-5793/1510109.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT nearly 60 percent: Suruchi Mishra, Jaime J. Gahche, Cynthia L. Ogden, Melissa Dimeler, Nancy Potischman, and Namanjeet Ahluwalia, “Dietary Supplement Use in the United States: National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 2017—March 2020,” National Health Statistics Reports, no. 183, April 18, 2023, https://dx.doi.org/10.15620/cdc:124677.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in the UK and Europe: “Food Supplements Consumer Research,” Food Standards Agency, May 2018, https://www.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/media/document/food-supplem ents-consumerresearch.pdf; Maria Chiara Vinciguerra, “Nutrition in a Pill: Europeans’Attitudes Towards Food Supplements,” Ipsos, October 5, 2022, https://www.ipsos.com/en/nutrition-pill-europeansattitudes-towards-foodsupplements.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “vicious cycle” of malnutrition: P.
Sinha and R. L. Guerrant, “The Costly Vicious Cycle of Infections and Malnutrition,” Journal of Infectious Diseases 229, no. 6 (June 14, 2024): 1611– 1613, https://doi.org/10.1093/infdis/jiad513.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT you reduce the vitamin content: Gerald F. Combs Jr. and James P.
McClung, The Vitamins: Fundamental Aspects in Nutrition and Health, 3rd ed. (Elsevier Academic Press, 2008).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 2011 report: V. L. Fulgoni III, Debra R. Keast, Regan L. Bailey, and Johanna Dwyer, “Foods, Fortificants, and Supplements: Where Do Americans Get Their Nutrients?,” Journal of Nutrition 141, no. 10 (October 2011): 1847–1854, https://doi.org/10.3945/jn.111.142257.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ready-made cereals: Backstrand, “History and Future of Food Fortification in the United States.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “standard American diet”: Price, Vitamania; Mark Bittman, Animal, Vegetable, Junk: A History of Food from Sustainable to Suicidal (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2021); Mark Schatzker, The End of Craving: Recovering the Lost Wisdom of Eating Well (Simon and Schuster, 2021).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT those who rely on supplements: Fan Chen, Mengxi Du, Jeffrey B.
Blumberg, et al., “Association Among Dietary Supplement Use, Nutrient Intake, and Mortality Among U.S. Adults: A Cohort Study,” Annals of Internal Medicine 170, no. 9 (May 7, 2019): 604–613, https://doi.org/10.7326/M18-2478.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT eaten in their context: John D. Clarke, Anna Hsu, Ken Riedl, et al., “Bioavailability and InterConversion of Sulforaphane and Erucin in Human Subjects Consuming Broccoli Sprouts or Broccoli Supplement in a Cross-over Study Design,” Pharmacological Research 64, no. 5 (November 2011): 456–463, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2011.07.005.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Modern food”: Mark Schatzker, The Dorito Effect: The Surprising New Truth About Food and Flavor (Simon and Schuster, 2015).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT driving obesity: Schatzker, The End of Craving (Simon and Schuster, 2021).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT harms of nutritional reductionism: Gyorgy Scrinis, Nutritionism: The Science and Politics of Dietary Advice (Columbia University Press, 2013).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT
CHAPTER 11: Nutritional Dark Matter “dark matter” of nutrition: A. L.
Barabasi, G. Menichetti, and J. Loscalzo, “The Unmapped Chemical Complexity of Our Diet,” Nature Food 1, no. 140 (2020), https://www.nature.com/articles/s43016-020-0030-0.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT FooDB: FooDB, accessed February 21, 2024, https://foodb.ca/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT as early as 1977: G. B. Haber, K. W. Heaton, D. Murphy, and L. F.
Burroughs, “Depletion and Disruption of Dietary Fibre: Effects on Satiety, Plasma-Glucose, and Serum-Insulin,” Lancet 2, no. 8040 (October 1, 1977): 679–682, https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(77)90494-9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “food matrix effect”: A. Fardet, “Ultra-Processing Should Be Understood as a Holistic Issue, from Food Matrix, to Dietary Patterns, Food Scoring, and Food Systems,” Journal of Food Science 89, no. 7 (July 2024): 4563–4573, https://doi.org/10.1111/1750-3841.17139.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT process almonds or cook pasta: J. A. Novotny, S. K. Gebauer, and D. J.
Baer, “Discrepancy Between the Atwater Factor Predicted and Empirically Measured Energy Values of Almonds in Human Diets,” American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 96, no. 2 (August 2012): 296–301, https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.035782; S. K. Gebauer, J. A. Novotny, G. M. Bornhorst, and D.
J. Baer, “Food Processing and Structure Impact the Metabolizable Energy of Almonds,” Food & Function 7, no. 10 (October 12, 2016): 4231–4238, https://doi.org/10.1039/c6fo01076h; H. D.
Holscher, A. M. Taylor, K. S. Swanson, J. A. Novotny, and D. J. Baer, “Almond Consumption and Processing Affects the Composition of the Gastrointestinal Microbiota of Healthy Adult Men and Women: A Randomized Controlled Trial,” Nutrients 10, no. 2 (January 26, 2018), https://doi.org/10.3390/nu10020126.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT control fire and use it to cook: Richard W. Wrangham, Catching Fire: How Cooking Made Us Human (Basic Books, 2009).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT matrix effect is one of the theories: J. M. Aguilera, “The Food Matrix: Implications in Processing, Nutrition and Health,” Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition 59, no. 22 (2019): 3612– 3629, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408398.2018.1502743.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT bacteria in our gut use dietary fiber: Kallie E. Hays, Jacob M. Pfaffinger, and Rebecca Ryznar, “The Interplay Between Gut Microbiota, Short-Chain Fatty Acids, and Implications for Host Health and Disease,” Gut Microbes 16, no. 1 (January–December 2024): 2393270, https://doi.org/10.1080/19490976.2024.2393270.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT mere artifact: Martin Giera, Aries Aisporna, Winnie Uritboonthai, and Gary Siuzdak, “The Hidden Impact of In-Source Fragmentation in Metabolic and Chemical Mass Spectrometry Data Interpretation,” Nature Metabolism 6 (2024): 1647–1648, https://doi.org/10.1038/s42255-024- 01076-x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT harmful effects on animal organs have more recently been translated: K.
O’Leary, “Health Impacts of Microplastic Exposure,” Nature Medicine 30, no. 12 (December 2024): 3392, https://doi.org/10.1038/s41591-024-03388-7.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT three thousand such “food contact chemicals”: Birgit Geueke, Lindsey V.
Parkinson, Ksenia J.
Groh, et al., “Evidence for Widespread Human Exposure to Food Contact Chemicals,” Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology (September 17, 2024), https://doi.org/10.1038/s41370-024-00718-2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT kids’ jaws and teeth aren’t challenged: Sandra Kahn, Paul Ehrlich, Marcus Feldman, Robert Sapolsky, and Simon Wong, “The Jaw Epidemic: Recognition, Origins, Cures, and Prevention,” Bioscience 70, no. 9 (September 2020): 759–771, https://doi.org/10.1093/biosci/biaa073. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT governments feed workers and militaries: Elizabeth Neswald, David F.
Smith, and Ulrike Thoms, eds., Setting Nutritional Standards: Theory, Policies, Practices, Rochester Studies in Medical History (University of Rochester Press, 2017).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT decode the chemical compounds in flavors: Eric Schlosser, Fast Food Nation: The Dark Side of the All-American Meal (Houghton Mifflin, 2001).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 12: The Calorie Glut 800-to-1,000-calorie-per-capita surge: K. D. Hall, J. Guo, M. Dore, and C. C. Chow, “The Progressive Increase of Food Waste in America and Its Environmental Impact,” PLOS One 4, no.
11 (2009): e7940, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007940.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT less time doing physical activity for work: A. G. Knuth and P. C. Hallal, “Temporal Trends in Physical Activity: A Systematic Review,” Journal of Physical Activity and Health 6, no. 5 (2009): 548–559, https://doi.org/10.1123/jpah.6.5.548.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT steadily shrinking since the 1950s: Bruce L. Gardner, American Agriculture in the Twentieth Century: How It Flourished and What It Cost (Harvard University Press, 2002).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 15,000 calories per day per person: Charts and Maps Field Crops data, USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, accessed March 25, 2024, https://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/Field_Crops/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT after accounting for all the exports: “Commodities and Products,” USDA Foreign Agricultural Services, U.S. Department of Agriculture, accessed March 25, 2024, https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/commodities.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT painted a grim portrait: T. R. Malthus, An Essay on the Principle of Population (Johnson, 1798).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT echoed ever since: Paul R. Ehrlich, The Population Bomb (Ballantine Books, 1968). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 2,800 daily calories for every single person: K. Bahadur KC, G. M. Dias, A. Veeramani, et al., “When Too Much Isn’t Enough: Does Current Food Production Meet Global Nutritional Needs?,” PLOS One 13, no. 10 (2018): e0205683, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0205683.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT how did we avoid Malthus’s predictions: K. D. Hall, “From Dearth to Excess: The Rise of Obesity in an Ultra-Processed Food System,” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 378, no. 1885 (2023): 20220214, https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2022.0214.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT selectively breed those crops: “The Green Revolution: Norman Borlaug and the Race to Fight Global Hunger,” American Experience, PBS, April 3, 2020, https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/green-revolution -norman-borlaug-raceto-fight-global-hunger/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT enough to make forty-two loaves of commercial white bread: “Everything You Could Need to Know…Wheat Facts,” National Association of Wheat Growers, accessed March 10, 2025, https://wheatworld.org/facts-about-wheat/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT three hundred hours of backbreaking farmwork: Harvey Blatt, America’s Food: What You Don’t Know About What You Eat (MIT Press, 2008).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The U.S. Department of Agriculture helped fuel: Bennett Rosenberg and Jared Hayes, “USDA Livestock Subsidies Top $72B,” Environmental Working Group, October 28, 2024, https://www.ewg.org/news-insights/news/2024/10/usda-livestock-subsidi es-top-59-billion; Björn Ólafsson, “What Farm Subsidies Are and Why They Matter, Explained,” Sentient Policy, August 11, 2023, https://sentientmedia.org/why-are-farmers-subsidized/; USDAAgricultural Marketing Service, “About AMS,” accessed February 28, 2025, https://www.ams.usda.gov/about-ams.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT availability of poultry and eggs soared: J. H. Lee, M. Duster, T. Roberts, and O. Devinsky, “United States Dietary Trends Since 1800: Lack of Association Between Saturated Fatty Acid Consumption and Non-Communicable Diseases,” Frontiers in Nutrition 8 (2021): 748847, https://doi.org/10.3389/fnut.2021.748847.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT That’s nearly 75 kilograms per person: Benjamin Morach, Björn Witte, Decker Walker, et al., “Food for Thought: The Protein Transformation,” Boston Consulting Group, March 24, 2021, https://www.bcg.com/publications/2021/the-benefits-of-plant-based-meat s.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT altered the look, smell, and “mouth feel” of the wheat, rice, soy, and corn: Paul Roberts, The End of Food (Mariner Books, 2008); Michael Moss, Salt Sugar Fat: How the Food Giants Hooked Us (Random House, 2013); Mark Schatzker, The Dorito Effect: The Surprising New Truth About Food and Flavor (Simon and Schuster, 2015).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT illusion of diversity: Schatzker, The Dorito Effect; Michael Pollan, The Omnivore’s Dilemma: A Natural History of Four Meals (Penguin Press, 2006).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT They now spend less than 10 percent: Marion Nestle, Food Politics: How the Food Industry Influences Nutrition and Health (University of California Press, 2002).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT UPFs cost less: Tamar Haspel, “Junk Food Is Cheap and Healthful Food Is Expensive, but Don’t Blame the Farm Bill,” Washington Post, December 4, 2017, https://www.washingtonpost.com/lifestyle/food/im-a-fan-of-michael-pollan -but-on-one-foodpolicy-argument-hes-wrong/2017/12/04/c71881ca-d6cd -11e7-b62d-d9345ced896d_story.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT live with persistent hunger: Hannah Ritchie, Pablo Rosado, and Max Roser, “Hunger and Undernourishment,” Our World in Data, 2023, https://ourworldindata.org/hunger-andundernourishment.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more people now have obesity than endure hunger: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, International Fund for Agricultural Development, United Nations Children’s Fund, World Food Programme, and World Health Organization, The State of Food Security and Nutrition in the World: Safeguarding Against Economic Slowdowns and Downturns (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2019), https://openknowledge.fao.org/server/api/core/bitstreams/16480532-17e 9-4b61-b388- 1d6d86414470/content.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT almost half of the earth’s habitable land: Hannah Ritchie and Max Roser, “Land Use,” Our World in Data, 2019, https://ourworldindata.org/land-use; Hannah Ritchie, Not the End of the World: How We Can Be the First Generation to Build a Sustainable Planet (Little, Brown Spark, 2024).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 70 percent of our fresh water: Hannah Ritchie, Pablo Rosado, and Max Roser, “Environmental Impacts of Food Production,” Our World in Data, 2022, https://ourworldindata.org/environmental-impacts-of-food.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT already drained the groundwater: Mira Rojanasakul, Christopher Flavelle, Blacki Migliozzi, and Eli Murray, “America Is Using Up Its Groundwater Like There’s No Tomorrow,” New York Times, August 28, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/08/28/climate/groundwaterdryi ng-climate-change.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Ninety percent of land-related biodiversity loss: “Rich Countries Use Six Times More Resources, Generate 10 Times the Climate Impacts Than Low-Income Ones,” United Nations Environment Programme, March 1, 2024, https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/rich-countriesusesix-times-more-resources-generate-10-times.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The food system as a whole: Hannah Ritchie, “Food Production Is Responsible for One-Quarter of the World’s Greenhouse Gas Emissions,” 2019, Our World in Data, https://ourworldindata.org/food-ghg-emissions.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 1 to 2 percent of global carbon emissions: Bosong Lin, Fouzia Hasan Nowrin, Justin J. Rosenthal, Abhoyjit S. Bhown, and Mahdi Malmali, “Perspective on Intensification of Haber−Bosch to Enable Ammonia Production Under Milder Conditions,” ACS Sustainable Chemistry & Engineering 11, no. 27 (2023): 9880–9899, https://doi.org/10.1021/acssuschemeng.2c06711.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cattle are even less efficient : J. Poore and T. Nemecek, “Reducing Food’s Environmental Impacts Through Producers and Consumers,” Science 360, no. 6392 (2018): 987–992, https://doi.org/10.1126/science.aaq0216.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Beans look relatively fantastic: D. Blaustein-Rejto, N. Soltis, and L.
Blomqvist, “Carbon Opportunity Cost Increases Carbon Footprint Advantage of Grain-Finished Beef,” PLOS One 18, no. 12 (2023): e0295035, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0295035; Gidon Eshel, Avi I.
Flamholz, Alon Shepon, and Ron Milo, “US Grass-Fed Beef Is as Carbon Intensive as Industrial Beef and ≈10-Fold More Intensive Than Common Protein-Dense Alternatives,” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 122, no. 12 (2025): e2404329122, https://doi.org/doi:10.1073/pnas.2404329122.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT beef consumption has been decreasing: Linda Kantor and Andrzej Blazejczyk, “U.S. Diets Are Out of Balance with Federal Recommendations,” USDA Economic Research Service, April 20, 2021, https://www.ers.usda.gov/data-products/ag-and-food-statistics-charting-t he-essentials/foodavailability-and-consumption.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT growing cows for beef and dairy particularly bad: Terrence McCoy and Julia Ledur, “Devouring the Rainforest,” Washington Post, April 29, 2022, https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/interactive/2022/amazon-beef-de forestation-brazil/; Michael Grunwald, “Cattle Are a Huge Climate Threat.
Smarter Ranching Can Help,” Canary Media, April 17, 2023, https://www.canarymedia.com/articles/food-and-farms/cattle-are-a-hugec limate-threat-smarter-ranching-can-help.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT They tend to live in confined spaces: Nicholas Kristof, “The Ugly Secrets Behind the Costco Chicken,” New York Times, February 6, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/02/06/opinion/sunday/costco-chicken-ani mal-welfare.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Ezra Klein has written: Ezra Klein, “We Will Look Back on This Age of Cruelty to Animals in Horror,” New York Times, December 16, 2021, https://www.nytimes.com/2021/12/16/opinion/factory-farming-animals.ht ml.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT including migrants and children: Hannah Dreier and Kirsten Luce, “Alone and Exploited, Migrant Children Work Brutal Jobs Across the U.S.” New York Times, February 28, 2023, https://www.nytimes.com/2023/02/25/us/unaccompanied-migrant-child-w orkersexploitation.html; Mark Bittman, Animal, Vegetable, Junk: A History of Food from Sustainable to Suicidal (Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2021).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT on the labor of enslaved people: Khalil Gibran Muhammad, “The Sugar That Saturates the American Diet Has a Barbaric History as the ‘White Gold’ That Fueled Slavery,” New York Times, August 14, 2019, https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/08/14/magazine/sugar-slavetr ade-slavery.html. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT newly arrived child migrants: Dreier and Luce, “Alone and Exploited.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT forced or child labor remains pervasive: Nicole Tichenor Blackstone, Edgar Rodríguez-Huerta, Kyra Battaglia, et al., “Forced Labour Risk Is Pervasive in the US Land-Based Food Supply,” Nature Food 4 (2023): 596–606, https://doi.org/10.1038/s43016-023-00794-x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT investigation of sugarcane cutters: Megha Rajagopalan and Qadri Inzamam, “The Brutality of Sugar: Debt, Child Marriage and Hysterectomies,” New York Times, March 24, 2024, https://www.nytimes.com/2024/03/24/world/asia/india-sugar-cane-fieldschild-laborhysterectomies.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT pushed up the number of people experiencing hunger and malnutrition: “Hunger Numbers Stubbornly High for Three Consecutive Years as Global Crises Deepen,” World Health Organization, July 24, 2024, https://www.who.int/news/item/24-07-2024-hunger-numbersstubbornly-hi gh-for-three-consecutive-years-as-global-crises-deepen--un-report.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT hunger and malnutrition could rise: “Climate Crisis and Malnutrition—a Case for Acting Now,” World Food Programme, September 20, 2021, https://www.wfp.org/publications/climate-crisisand-malnutrition-case-acti ng-now.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The farm also features a bunker and private energy reserves: Guthrie Scrimgeour, “Inside Mark Zuckerberg’s Top-Secret Hawaii Compound,” Wired, December 14, 2023, https://www.wired.com/story/mark-zuckerberg-inside-hawaii-compound/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT looking beyond their borders: Nathan Halverson, “How China Purchased a Prime Cut of America’s Pork Industry,” Reveal, January 24, 2015, https://revealnews.org/article/how-china-purchased-aprime-cut-of-americ as-pork-industry/; Nathan Halverson, “The Great Arizona Water Grab,” Reveal, June 8, 2024, https://revealnews.org/podcast/the-great-arizona-water-grab-update-202 4/; Jennifer Clapp, “Op-ed: Food Price Spikes Are About Much More Than Ukraine,” Civil Eats, May 16, 2022, https://civileats.com/2022/05/16/op-ed-food-price-spikes-are-about-much -more-than-ukraine/; Frederick Kaufman, “The Food Bubble,” Harper’s, July 2010, https://harpers.org/archive/2010/07/the-food-bubble/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Every society is only three meals from chaos”: B. Ollivere, “Three Meals from Chaos,” Bone & Joint 360 9, no. 4 (2020): 3–4, https://doi.org/10.1302/2048-0105.94.360800.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more sustainable forms of agriculture: Arohi Sharma, Lara Bryant, Ellen Lee, and Claire O’Connor, “Regenerative Agriculture,” Natural Resources Defense Council, April 21, 2022, https://www.nrdc.org/resources/regenerative-agriculture; “Regenerative Agriculture 101,” Natural Resources Defense Council, November 29, 2021, https://www.nrdc.org/stories/regenerativeagriculture-101. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT less stable and typically decrease: Vera Ysabel V. de la Cruz, Tantriani, Weiguo Cheng, and Keitaro Tawaraya, “Yield Gap Between Organic and Conventional Farming Systems Across Climate Types and Sub-Types: A Meta-Analysis,” Agricultural Systems 211 (2023): 103732, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2023.103732; William D. McBride, Catherine Greene, Linda Foreman, and Mir Ali, The Profit Potential of Certified Organic Field Crop Production, ERR188, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, July 2015, https://ers.usda.gov/sites/default/files/_laserfiche/publications/45380/534 08_err188_summary.pdf .
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT played out recently in Sri Lanka: Ted Nordhaus and Saloni Shah, “In Sri Lanka, Organic Farming Went Catastrophically Wrong,” Foreign Policy, March 5, 2022, https://foreignpolicy.com/2022/03/05/sri-lanka-organic-farming-crisis/; Kenny Torrella, “Sri Lanka’s Organic Farming Disaster, Explained,” Vox, July 15, 2022, https://www.vox.com/futureperfect/2022/7/15/23218969/sri-lanka-organic -fertilizer-pesticide-agriculture-farming; “Special Report—FAO/WFP Crop and Food Security Assessment Mission (CFSAM) to the Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka,” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and World Food Programme, September 2022, https://doi.org/10.4060/cc1886en.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT we don’t make nearly enough: Bahadur et al., “When Too Much Isn’t Enough”; D. Mason-D’Croz, J. R. Bogard, T. B. Sulser, et al., “Gaps Between Fruit and Vegetable Production, Demand, and Recommended Consumption at Global and National Levels: An Integrated Modelling Study,” Lancet Planetary Health 3, no. 7 (2019): e318—e329, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2542- 5196(19)30095-6; Jean C. Buzby, Hodan Farah Wells, and Gary Vocke, “Possible Implications for U.S. Agriculture from Adoption of Select Dietary Guidelines,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service, no. 31 (2006), https://ers.usda.gov/sites/default/files/_laserfiche/publications/45687/291 84_err31fm_002.pdf. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT don’t subsidize their production at the scale required to make them affordable: Tara O’Neill Hayes and Katerina Kesrka, “PRIMER: Agriculture Subsidies and Their Influence on the Composition of U.S. Food Supply and Consumption,” American Action Forum, November 3, 2021, https://www.americanactionforum.org/research/primer-agriculture-subsidi es-and-theirinfluence-on-the-composition-of-u-s-food-supply-and-consu mption/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT occurs in the late stages of the food supply chain: Dana Gunders, “Wasted: How America Is Losing Up to 40 Percent of Its Food from Farm to Fork to Landfill,” Natural Resources Defense Council, August 16, 2017, https://www.nrdc.org/resources/wasted-how-america-losing-40- percent-its-food-farm-fork-landfill; K. D. Hall, J. Guo, M. Dore, and C. C.
Chow, “The Progressive Increase of Food Waste in America and Its Environmental Impact,” PLOS One 4, no.
11 (2009): e7940, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0007940.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT technology that safely and efficiently preserves produce: Peng Jin, “Latest Advances in Preservation Technology for Fresh Fruit and Vegetables,” Foods 11, no. 20 (2022): 3236, https://doi.org/10.3390/foods11203236.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Most food is lost upstream during the production, storage, and distribution-to-market stages: “Reducing Food Loss and Waste: Setting a Global Action Agenda,” World Resources Institute, August 28, 2019, https://www.wri.org/research/reducing-food-loss-and-waste-setting-globa laction-agenda.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT closing the so-called yield gap: Hannah Ritchie, “Increasing Agricultural Productivity Across SubSaharan Africa Is One of the Most Important Problems This Century,” Our World in Data, April 4, 2022, https://ourworldindata.org/africa-yields-problem.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT suppressing methane production in cows: Nick Eardley, Matt Murphy, Olga Robinson, and Marco Silva, “Why Misinformation About a Cow Feed Additive Prompted People to Throw Milk Away,” BBC, December 4, 2024, https://www.bbc.com/news/articles/c8rjdgre3vpo. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT knallgas: Dilek Ercili-Cura, Anna Häkämies, Laura Sinisalo, Pasi Vainikka, and Juha-Pekka Pitkänen, “Food out of Thin Air,” Food Science and Technology 34, no. 2 (2020): 44–48, https://doi.org/10.1002/fsat.3402_12.x.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT electrolysis of water: J. Sillman, V. Uusitalo, V. Ruuskanen, et al., “A Life Cycle Environmental Sustainability Analysis of Microbial Protein Production via Power-to-Food Approaches,” International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment 25, no. 11 (2020): 2190–2203, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11367-020-01771-3.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT modern solar panels: Jani Sillman, Lauri Nygren, Helena Kahiluoto, et al., “Bacterial Protein for Food and Feed Generated via Renewable Energy and Direct Air Capture of CO2 : Can It Reduce Land and Water Use?,” Global Food Security 22 (2019): 25–32, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2019.09.007.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT these products could be readily adopted: Liesbet Vranken, Tessa Avermaete, Dimitrios Petalios, and Erik Mathijs, “Curbing Global Meat Consumption: Emerging Evidence of a Second Nutrition Transition,” Environmental Science & Policy 39 (May 2014): 95–106, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2014.02.009.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT U.S. states are already banning: Andrew Jacobs and Emily Anthes, “Who’s Afraid of Lab-Grown Meat?,” New York Times, March 14, 2025, https://www.nytimes.com/2025/03/14/science/whosafraid-of-lab-grown-m eat.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT CHAPTER 13: Now You Know federal government defunded: D. G. Nathan and D. M. Nathan, “Eulogy for the Clinical Research Center,” Journal of Clinical Investigation 126, no. 7 (2016): 2388–2391, https://doi.org/10.1172/JCI88381; A. Vella, M.
D. Jensen, and K. S. Nair, “Eulogy for the Metabolic Clinical Investigator?,” Diabetes 65, no. 10 (2016): 2821–2823, https://doi.org/10.2337/db16-0923.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT FDA commissioner remarked: Matthew Herper, “Leaving FDA, Califf is Unapologetic—and Warns of Staff Departures,” STAT, January 8, 2025, https://www.statnews.com/2025/01/08/fdarobert-califf-interview-drug-foo d-regulation/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT U.S. Senate hearings have directly targeted the ultra-processed food industry: “What Is Fueling the Diabetes Epidemic?,” U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor & Pensions, December 14, 2023, https://www.help.senate.gov/hearings/what-is-fueling-the-diabetesepide mic; “Health Subcommittee Hearing on Investing in a Healthier America: Chronic Disease Prevention and Treatment,” U.S. House Committee on Ways and Means, September 18, 2024, https://waysandmeans.house.gov/event/health-subcommittee-hearing-on -investing-in-a-healthieramerica-chronic-disease-prevention-and-treatme nt/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The previous FDA commissioner: “What Is the FDA Doing to Reduce the Diabetes and Obesity Epidemics in America and Take on the Greed of the Food and Beverage Industry?,” U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor & Pensions, December 5, 2024, https://www.help.senate.gov/hearings/what-is-the-fda-doing-to-reduce-th e-diabetes-and-obesityepidemics-in-america-and-take-on-the-greed-of-t he-food-and-beverage-industry.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT banning several food additives: “Governor Newsom Issues Executive Order to Crack Down on Ultra-Processed Foods and Further Investigate Food Dyes,” Governor Gavin Newsom, January 3, 2025, https://www.gov.ca.gov/2025/01/03/governor-newsom-issues-executiveorder-to-crackdown-on-ultra-processed-foods-and-further-investigate-foo d-dyes/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Many states are introducing bills: Aliss Higham, “Map Shows 10 States Changing Rules on SNAP Benefits,” Newsweek, March 12, 2025, https://www.newsweek.com/map-shows-ten-stateschanging-rules-snapbenefits-junk-food-2043467; Safia Samee Ali, “SNAP Cuts: What Banning Candy and Soda from Food Stamps Could Mean,” NewsNation, March 19, 2025, https://www.newsnationnow.com/health/soda-candy-bans-potentially-cutsnap/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in nearly 120 countries: “Countries and Jurisdictions That Have Taxes on Sugar-sweetened Beverages (SSBs),” Obesity Evidence Hub, https://www.obesityevidencehub.org.au/collections/prevention/countries-t hat-have-implementedtaxes-on-sugar-sweetened-beverages-ssbs.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT soda tax in 2018 was followed by restrictions: “Soft Drinks Industry Levy Comes Into Effect,” GOV.UK, April 5, 2018, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/soft-drinks-industry-levy-comesinto -effect; “Junk Food Ad Ban Legislation Progresses to Curb Childhood Obesity,” GOV.UK, December 3, 2024, https://www.gov.uk/government/news/junk-food-ad-ban-legislationprogre sses-to-curb-childhood-obesity.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT House of Lords issued: Food, Diet and Obesity Committee, “Recipe for Health: A Plan to Fix Our Broken Food System,” House of Lords, October 24, 2024, https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld5901/ldselect/ldmfdo/19/19.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT sued eleven ultra-processed foods manufacturers: “Lawsuit Alleges Intentional Sale of ‘Harmful and Addictive’ Ultra-Processed Foods,” National Law Review, December 11, 2024, https://natlawreview.com/article/lawsuit-alleges-intentional-sale-harmfuland-addictive-ultraprocessed-foods.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Merchants of Doubt: Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway, Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming, (Bloomsbury Press, 2010).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “reprehensible in every respect”: H. W. Wiley, “Influence of Food Preservatives and Artificial Colors on Digestion and Health,” U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Chemistry (1904), https://ia801308.us.archive.org/5/items/influenceoffoodp00wile/influence offoodp00wile.pdf. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT