Plurk paste

Notes

chapter one: the human superiority complex “What a piece of work”: William Shakespeare (1603/1877). Hamlet, act 2, scene 2. In Horace H.
Furness (ed.), A New Variorum Edition of Shakespeare, Vol. 1 (p. 159).
J. B. Lippincott.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Psychologists have shown: Alfred Adler (1930). “Individual psychology.” In Carl Murchison (ed.), Psychologies of 1930 (pp. 395–405). Clark University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Although we are animals”: Roger Scruton (March 6, 2017). “If we are not just animals, what are we?” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/06/opinion/if-we-are-not-just-animalsw hat-are-we.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “We cannot satisfactorily”: Adam Rutherford (September 21, 2018). “The human league: What separates us from other animals?” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2018/sep/21/human-instinct-why-we -are-unique.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It seems obvious”: Thomas Suddendorf (November 21, 2013). “Are we really different from other animals?” CNN.
https://www.cnn.com/2013/11/21/health/animals-humans-gap/index.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “why we can cooperate”: Guy Raz (March 4, 2016). “Why did humans become the most successful species on earth?” Ted Radio Hour. NPR.
https://www.npr.org/transcripts/468882620?
t=1600086855866.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Maybe the reason”: Melissa Healy (December 20, 2016). “Chimpanzees may be helpful, but humans are the only primates that are kind to others, study suggests.” Los Angeles Times.
https://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-kindness-chimpa nzees-humans20161220-story.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT opened his keynote address: Michael Tomasello (May 23, 2019). Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny. Association for Psychological Science Annual Convention. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BNbeleWvXyQ.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT dubbed “humaniqueness” by: Marc Hauser (November 12, 2008). The Seeds of Humanity. Tanner Lectures on Human Values, delivered at Princeton University.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Man in his arrogance”: Charles Darwin (1837/1974). C Notebook. In Howard E. Gruber and Paul H. Barrett (eds.), Darwin on Man (pp.
196–197). Wildwood House.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic—WEIRD: Joseph Henrich, Steven J.
Heine, and Ara Norenzayan (2010). “The WEIRDest people in the world?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33: 61–83.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Study: Dolphins Not So Intelligent”: The Onion (February 15, 2006).
https://www.theonion.com/study-dolphins-not-so-intelligent-on-land-1819 568299.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT More than 90 percent of the earth’s soil: Food and Agriculture Organization (May 15–17, 2019).
Global Symposium on Soil Erosion, “Key messages.” https://www.fao.org/about/meetings/soilerosion-symposium/key-messag es/en.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Thirty percent of global forest cover: World Resources Institute.
Accessed March 30, 2021.
https://www.f6s.com/worldresourcesinstitutewri/about.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Earth’s temperature has risen: Rebecca Lindsey and Luann Dahlman (January 18, 2024). “Climate change: Global temperature.” National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration.
https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-ch ange-globaltemperature.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Ocean acidification has been occurring: European Environment Agency. “Ocean acidification.” Accessed June 13, 2020. https://www.eea.europa.eu/data-and-maps/indicators/oceanacidification2/assessment.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Wild animal populations: World Wildlife Fund. Living Planet Report 2020.
Accessed June 14, 2021.
https://f.hubspotusercontent20.net/hubfs/4783129/LPR/PDFs/ENGLISHFULL.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Pollinators on whom: Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (2016). Assessment Report on Pollinators, Pollination and Food Production. Accessed June 14, 2021.
https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “I could go on”: Paul Kingsnorth (2017). Confessions of a Recovering Environmentalist and Other Essays (p. 2). Graywolf Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT time period the Anthropocene: Paul J. Crutzen (2002). “Geology of mankind.” Nature 415 (6867): 23.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT criticism from various scholars: For example, Andreas Malm and Alf Hornborg (2014). “The geology of mankind? A critique of the Anthropocene narrative.” Anthropocene Review 1 (1): 62– 69; Eileen Crist (2013). “On the poverty of our nomenclature.” Environmental Humanities 3: 129–147.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter two: the unlearning curve the term “biophilia”: Edward O. Wilson (1984). Biophilia. Harvard University Press. The term was coined by sociologist Erich Fromm: Erich Fromm (1964). The Heart of Man: Its Genius for Good and Evil. Harper and Row.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In one of my favorite videos: Weirdo Ultimaes (April 17, 2015). “Budding vegetarian makes mom cry with his love of animals.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oL8jz_Dl2Pc.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In one 2021 study: Matti Wilks, Lucius Caviola, Guy Kahane, and Paul Bloom (2021). “Children prioritize humans over animals less than adults do.” Psychological Science 32 (1): 27–38. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT children rated farm animals: Scott Plous (1993). “Psychological mechanisms in the human use of animals.” Journal of Social Issues 49: 11–52.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Species used in agriculture: Peter Singer (2002). Animal Liberation: A New Ethics for Our Treatment of Animals. HarperCollins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT People eat “chicken”: I borrow this suggestion from Plous (1993).
“Psychological mechanisms in the human use of animals” (p. 17).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Researchers in cognitive linguistics: See William Croft and D. Alan Cruse (2004). Cognitive Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Sociologist Eileen Crist calls: Eileen Crist (2013). “On the poverty of our nomenclature.” Environmental Humanities 3: 129–147.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Even dictionaries, which are seen: See Reinhard Heuberger (2003). “Anthropocentrism in monolingual English dictionaries: An ecolinguistic approach to the lexicographic treatment of faunal terminology.” AAA: Arbeiten aus Anglistik und Amerikanistik 28 (1): 93–105.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ask Google to define: Unfortunately, we are also imparting these anthropocentric prejudices to mainstream AI applications. For example, WordNet and other annotation structures for popular image datasets contain speciesist terms like “hog,” “porker,” and “livestock.” See Thilo Hagendorff, Leonie N. Bossert, Yip Fai Tse, and Peter Singer (2023).
“Speciesist bias in AI: How AI applications perpetuate discrimination and unfair outcomes against animals.” AI and Ethics 3: 717–734. See also Rachel Teng (November 3, 2023). “The AI bias that’s often overlooked: Speciesism.” Sentient Media.
https://sentientmedia.org/ai-bias-speciesism.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Wesleyan psychologist Scott Plous: Scott Plous (2003). “Is there such a thing as prejudice towards animals?” In Scott Plous (ed.), Understanding Prejudice and Discrimination (pp. 509–528).
McGraw-Hill Higher Education. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT advised authors to substitute words: Described in Susan E. Lederer (1992). “Political animals: The shaping of biomedical research literature in twentieth-century America.” Isis 83: 61–79.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “When gender is known”: Jane Goodall et al. (2021). “Joint open letter to the Associated Press calling for a change in animal pronouns.” Accessed September 24, 2024.
https://www.idausa.org/assets/files/assets/uploads/pdf/openletterapstyle book.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Jacques Derrida once elaborated: Jacques Derrida (2008). The Animal That Therefore I Am.
Fordham University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The arrogance of English”: Robin Wall Kimmerer (2012). “Learning the grammar of animacy” (p.
9). The Leopold Outlook (Winter): 1–9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Interestingly, research indicates: Luke McGuire, Sally B. Palmer, and Nadira S. Faber (2023). “The development of speciesism: Age-related differences in the moral view of animals.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 14 (2): 228–237.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Some studies suggest: Aurélien Miralles, Michel Raymond, and Guillaume Lecointre (2019).
“Empathy and compassion toward other species decrease with evolutionary divergence time.” Scientific Reports 9 (1): 1–8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Dorian Solot and Arnold Arluke: Dorian Solot and Arnold Arluke (1997).
“Learning the scientist’s role: Animal dissection in middle school.” Journal of Contemporary Ethnography 26: 28–54.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “One of the skills”: Quoted in Nancy Averett (January 27, 2020). “High school dissections are a science class tradition, but are they doing more harm than good?” Discover.
https://www.discovermagazine.com/the-sciences/the-argument-against-h igh-school-animaldissections. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Kopnina’s research showed: Helen Kopnina, Michael Sitka-Sage, Sean Blenkinsop, and Laura Piersol (2018). “Moving beyond innocence: Educating children in a post-nature world.” In Amy Cutter-Mackenzie-Knowles, Karen Malone, and Elisabeth Barratt Hacking (eds.), Research Handbook on Childhoodnature (pp. 603–621).
Springer.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “History is the story”: John M. Roberts (2014). The Penguin History of the World (6th ed., p. 1).
Penguin Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the “species” category: James Mallet, Fernando Seixas, and Yuttapong Thawornwattana (2022).
“Species, concepts of.” In Samuel M. Scheiner (ed.), Encyclopedia of Biodiversity (3rd ed., pp.
531–545). Academic Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT creatures like earthworms: For a wonderful exposition of this, see Eileen Crist (2002). “The inner life of earthworms: Darwin’s argument and its implications.” In Marc Bekoff, Colin Allen, and Gordon M. Burghardt (eds.), The Cognitive Animal: Empirical and Theoretical Perspectives on Animal Cognition (pp. 3–8). MIT Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Nothing in biology”: Theodosius Dobzhansky (1973). “Nothing in biology makes sense except in the light of evolution.” American Biology Teacher 35 (3): 125–129.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “all species are unique”: Theodosius Dobzhansky (1955). Evolution, Genetics, and Man (p. 12).
John Wiley.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Stephen Jay Gould, who taught: See, for instance, Stephen Jay Gould (1989). Wonderful Life: The Burgess Shale and the Nature of History.
Norton.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT presented as progressive: Sean Nee (2005). “The great chain of being.” Nature 435: 429. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “it is absurd to talk of”: Charles Darwin (1837). Notebook B: (Transmutation, 1837–1838). Darwin Online, CUL-DAR121. Accessed April 21, 2022. http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?
itemID=CUL-DAR121.-&viewtype=side&pageseq=1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Are frogs more closely: I thank the following paper for this suggestion, complemented by a set of illuminating illustrations: David A. Baum, Stacey Dewitt Smith, and Samuel S. S. Donovan (2005). “The tree-thinking challenge.” Science 310: 979–981.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The vast majority of modern fish”: Becca Franks (December 22, 2020).
“Fish in the 21st century: The good, the bad, and the hopeful.” Nautilus.
https://nautil.us/fish-in-the-21st-century-thegood-the-bad-and-the-hopeful -11804. See also Becca Franks, Christine Webb, Monica Gagliano, and Barbara Smuts (2022). “Looking up to animals and other beings: What the fishes taught us.” In Melanie Challenger (ed.), Animal Dignity: Reflections on Our Respect for Other Species (pp.
229–238). Bloomsbury Academic.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “When we come to realize”: Robert J. O’Hara (1992). “Telling the tree: Narrative representation and the study of evolutionary history” (p. 157). Biology and Philosophy 7: 135–160.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Carey’s influential model: Susan Carey (1985). Conceptual Change in Childhood. MIT Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Carey found that young: Carey (1985). Conceptual Change in Childhood (pp. 126–135).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT also known as WEIRD: Joseph Henrich, Steven J. Heine, and Ara Norenzayan (2010). “The WEIRDest people in the world?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33: 61–83.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT anthropologists performed: Reviewed in Douglas Medin and Scott Atran (2004). “The native mind: Biological categorization and reasoning in development and across cultures.” Psychological Review 111 (4): 960–983.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one thousand corporate logos: See Colin Marshall (June 17, 2022). “The cracked wisdom of Dril.” New Yorker.
https://www.newyorker.com/culture/rabbit-holes/the-cracked-wisdom-of-d ril.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT biological categories for WEIRD adults: Described in Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010).
“The WEIRDest people in the world?” (p. 67).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One study compared: Kayoko Inagaki (1990). “The effects of raising animals on children’s biological knowledge.” British Journal of Developmental Psychology 8 (2): 119–129.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT To test this, Patricia Herrmann: Patricia Herrmann, Sandra R. Waxman, and Douglas L. Medin (2010). “Anthropocentrism is not the first step in children’s reasoning about the natural world.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107 (22): 9979–9984.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One case study: Scott Atran et al.
(2002). “Folkecology, cultural epidemiology, and the spirit of the commons.” Current Anthropology 43 (3): 421–450.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “nature-deficit disorder”: Richard Louv (2008). Last Child in the Woods: Saving Our Children from Nature-Deficit Disorder. Algonquin.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “shifting baseline syndrome”: Daniel Pauly (1995). “Anecdotes and the shifting baseline syndrome of fisheries.” Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10: 430.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “environmental generational amnesia”: Peter H. Kahn Jr. (2002).
“Children’s affiliations with nature: Structure, development, and the problem of environmental generational amnesia.” In Peter H. Kahn Jr.
and Stephen R. Kellert (eds.), Children and Nature (pp. 93–116). MIT Press. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One telling example: Samuel T. Turvey et al. (2010). “Rapidly shifting baselines in Yangtze fishing communities and local memory of extinct species.” Conservation Biology 24 (3): 778–787.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Whereas children watched: Frans de Waal, e-mail to author, November 14, 2021.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Children in the industrialized world”: John Berger (1980). “Why look at animals?” In About Looking (p. 22). Pantheon Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It is common to hear”: Jenny Kendler. “Tell it to the birds.” Accessed December 2, 2024.
https://jennykendler.com/section/402442-Tell%20it%20to%20the%20Bird s.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT So we turn away: That is, if we can—studies have shown that slaughterhouse workers who can’t turn away suffer psychological trauma and are themselves also victims of this exploitative system. Jessica Slade and Emma Alleyne (2021). “The psychological impact of slaughterhouse employment: A systematic literature review.” Trauma, Violence, & Abuse July: 1–12. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter three: a compulsion to contrast called this the “Differential Imperative”: John Rodman (1980). “Paradigm change in political science: An ecological perspective.” American Behavioral Scientist 24 (1): 49–78.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT early human societies: For a provocative reinterpretation of human history in this regard, see David Graeber and David Wengrow (2021).
The Dawn of Everything: A New History of Humanity.
Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Eileen Crist points out: Eileen Crist (2019). Abundant Earth: Toward an Ecological Civilization (pp. 52–53). University of Chicago Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT known as the scala naturae: See J. David Archibald (2014). Aristotle’s Ladder, Darwin’s Tree: The Evolution of Visual Metaphors for Biological Order. Columbia University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT As scholars like Gary Steiner: Gary Steiner (2005). Anthropocentrism and Its Discontents: The Moral Status of Animals in the History of Western Philosophy. University of Pittsburg Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “After the birth”: Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C./2014). Politics. In Jonathan Barnes (ed.), The Complete Works of Aristotle, Vol. 2: The Revised Oxford Translation (pp. 1993–1994). Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT progressionist linear language: Emanuele Rigato and Alessandro Minelli (2013). “The Great Chain of Being is still here.” Evolution: Education and Outreach 6: 1–6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT idea of the Great Chain of Being: Arthur O. Lovejoy (1976). The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea. Harvard University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Anticipating the biblical story: I borrow this suggestion from Crist (2019). Abundant Earth (p. 53).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Many the wonders”: Quoted in Hans Jonas (1974). Philosophical Essays (p. 122). Prentice-Hall.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “And God said”: The Bible (English Standard Version). Genesis 1:28.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the orthodox Christian arrogance”: Lynn White Jr. (1967). “The historical roots of our ecological crisis” (p. 1207). Science 55: 1203–1207.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “By gradual stages”: White Jr. (1967). “The historical roots of our ecological crisis” (p. 1205).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “victory of Christianity over paganism”: White Jr. (1967). “The historical roots of our ecological crisis” (p. 1205).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the great civilising influence”: Quoted in Keith Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World: Changing Attitudes in England 1500–1800 (p. 23).
Penguin.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT alternative interpretations of biblical: See Matthew Scully (2002).
Dominion: The Power of Man, the Suffering of Animals, and the Call to Mercy. St. Martin’s Griffin; Mark I. Wallace (2018).
When God Was a Bird. Fordham University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Catechism of the Catholic Church: Catechism of the Catholic Church for the United States of America (1997). CatholicCulture.org. Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://www.catholicculture.org/culture/library/catechism/index.cfm?recnu m=6253.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT International Committee of Human Dignity: “Universal Declaration of Human Dignity.” Accessed September 14, 2024.
http://www.dignitatishumanae.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Declarati on.pdf [inactive].
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 2019 Gallup poll: Gallup.
“Evolution, Creationism, Intelligent Design.” Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://news.gallup.com/poll/21814/evolution-creationism-intelligent-desi gn.aspx.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Buddhists do not necessarily regard: Alex Bruce (2018). “Buddhism: Paradox and practice— morally relevant distinctions in the Buddhist characterization of animals.” In Andrew Linzey and Clair Linzey (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Religion and Animal Ethics (pp. 43–55).
Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “no experience of any kind”: Quoted in Steiner (2005). Anthropocentrism and Its Discontents (p.
147).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “I perceived it to be”: René Descartes (1637/1927). Discourse on Method (p. 66). Open Court Publishing. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The mechanical inventions”: Francis Bacon (1607/1964). “Thoughts and conclusions on the interpretation of nature or a science of productive works.” In Benjamin Farrington, The Philosophy of Francis Bacon (p.
93). Liverpool University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a shore fit for Pandemonium”: Quoted in Jonathan Weiner (1994). The Beak of the Finch (p. 13).
Knopf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT He once wrote that: Charles Darwin (1845). Journal of Researches into the Natural History and Geology of the Countries Visited During the Voyage of H.M.S. Beagle Round the World, Under the Command of Capt. Fitz Roy, R.N. (2nd ed., p. 398). John Murray.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Another time, he pulled: Darwin (1845). Journal of Researches (p. 388).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one-quarter of his notes: GoGalapagos. “Charles Darwin and the Galapagos Islands.” Accessed December 19, 2020.
https://www.gogalapagos.com/charles-darwin-galapagos.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “mystery of mysteries”: Charles Darwin (1859/1902). On the Origin of Species (p. 25). American Home Library.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “like confessing a murder”: Darwin Correspondence Project. “Letter no.
729.” Accessed April 4, 2022.
https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-729.xml .
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The main conclusion”: Charles Darwin (1871/1981). The Descent of Man, Vol. 2 (p. 404).
Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Ascent of Man” measure: Nour Kteily, Emile Bruneau, Adam Waytz, and Sarah Cotterill (2015). “The ascent of man: Theoretical and empirical evidence for blatant dehumanization.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 109 (5): 901–931.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “This generates a curious paradox”: Melanie Challenger (April 6, 2021).
“The joy of being animal.” Aeon.
https://aeon.co/essays/to-be-fully-human-we-must-also-be-fully-embodie danimal.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT racist and sexist view: See Agustín Fuentes (2021). “ ‘The Descent of Man,’ 150 years on.” Science 372 (6544): 769 and associated commentary.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Despite Darwin,” wrote Lynn White Jr.: White Jr. (1967). “The historical roots of our ecological crisis” (p. 1206).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Now we must redefine”: Quoted at Jane Goodall Institute. “Our legacy of science.” Accessed April 30, 2022.
https://janegoodall.org/our-story/our-legacy-of-science. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the most satisfactory”: Kenneth Oakley (1956).
“The earliest tool-makers.” Antiquity 30 (117): 4– 8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT our avian cousins: For an exhaustive review, see Robert W. Shumaker, Kristina R. Walkup, and Benjamin B. Beck (2011). Animal Tool Behavior (pp. 35–58). John Hopkins University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT researchers presented bird participants: Alex A. S. Weir, Jackie Chappell, and Alex Kacelnik (2002). “Shaping of hooks in New Caledonian crows.” Science 297 (5583): 981.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Later work showed: Barbara C. Klump, Shoko Sugasawa, James J. H.
St. Clair, and Christian Rutz (2015). “Hook tool manufacture in New Caledonian crows: Behavioural variation and the influence of raw materials.” BMC Biology 13 (1): 1–15.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Octopuses gather coconut shells: Julian K. Finn, Tom Tregenza, and Mark D. Norman (2009). “Defensive tool use in a coconut-carrying octopus.” Current Biology 19 (23): 1069–1070.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Elephants pick up: Suzanne Chevalier-Skolnikoff and Jo Liska (1993).
“Tool use by wild and captive elephants.” Animal Behaviour 46: 209–219.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT tree crickets construct: Natasha Mhatre, Robert Malkin, Rittik Deb, Rohini Balakrishnan, and Daniel Robert (2017). “Tree crickets optimize the acoustics of baffles to exaggerate their mateattraction signal.” eLife 6: e32763.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “that complex whole”: Edward B. Tylor (1871). Primitive Culture (p. 1).
John Murray.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT research team of Kinji Imanishi: See Tetsuro Matsuzawa and William C.
McGrew (2008). “Kinji Imanishi and 60 years of Japanese primatology.” Current Biology 18 (14): R587–R591. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT conservation initiatives underway: S. J. Ryan (2006). “The role of culture in conservation planning for small or endangered populations.” Conservation Biology 20 (4): 1321–1324.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “A desire to take medicine”: William Osler (1891). “Recent advances in medicine” (p. 170).
Science 17: 170–171.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT surge of research: Reviewed in Joel Shurkin (2014). “Animals that self-medicate.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 1112 (49): 17339–17341.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One 2022 report: Alessandra Mascaro, Lara M. Southern, Tobias Deschner, and Simone Pika (2022). “Application of insects to wounds of self and others by chimpanzees in the wild.” Current Biology 32 (3): R112–R113.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “an adult male”: Quoted in Ashley Strickland (February 7, 2022).
“Chimpanzees apply ‘medicine’ to each others’ wounds in a possible show of empathy.” CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2022/02/07/world/chimpanzee-insects-wounds-scn/ index.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chimps try to protect: Christine E. Webb, Kayla Kolff, Xuejing Du, and Frans de Waal (2020).
“Jealous behavior in chimpanzees elicited by social intruders.” Affective Science 1 (4): 199–207.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Why should our nastiness”: Stephen Jay Gould (1980). Ever Since Darwin (p. 261). Penguin.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT other species appear more rational: See, for instance, Victoria Horner and Andrew Whiten (2005).
“Causal knowledge and imitation/emulation switching in chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and children (Homo sapiens).” Animal Cognition 8 (3): 164–181; Angie M. Johnston, Paul C.
Holden, and Laurie R. Santos (2017). “Exploring the evolutionary origins of overimitation: A comparison across domesticated and non-domesticated canids.” Developmental Science 20: e12460.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chimpanzees maximize their benefits: Keith Jensen, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello (2007).
“Chimpanzees are rational maximizers in an ultimatum game.” Science 318 (5847): 107–109.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT animals can be just as irrational: Thomas R. Zentall (2016). “When humans and other animals behave irrationally.” Comparative Cognition and Behavior Reviews 11 (1): 25–48.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Language is the last”: Ferris Jabr (May 12, 2017). “Can prairie dogs talk?” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/12/magazine/can-prairie-dogs-talk.htm l.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Vervet monkeys gained: Robert M. Seyfarth, Dorothy L. Cheney, and Peter Marler (1980). “Vervet monkey alarm calls: Semantic communication in a free-ranging primate.” Animal Behaviour 28 (4): 1070–1094. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT prairie dogs specify: Con Slobodchikoff (2012). Chasing Doctor Dolittle: Learning the Language of Animals (pp. 54–62). St. Martin’s Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Japanese great tits: Toshitaka N. Suzuki, David Wheatcroft, and Michael Griesser (2016).
“Experimental evidence for compositional syntax in bird calls.” Nature Communications 7 (10986).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Starlings, it turns out: Timothy Q. Gentner, Kimberly M. Fenn, Daniel Margoliash, and Howard C.
Nusbaum (2006). “Recursive syntactic pattern learning by songbirds.” Nature Communications 440 (7088): 1204–1207.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT introduces something called “The Sentence”: Daniel Gilbert (2006).
Stumbling on Happiness (pp.
3–4). Knopf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “If hypotheses about human uniqueness”: Colin A. Chapman and Michael A. Huffman (2018).
“Why do we want to think humans are different?” (p. 4). Animal Sentience 163: 1–8.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a sort of natural deficiency”: Aristotle (ca. 350 B.C./2014). Generation of Animals. In Jonathan Barnes (ed.), The Complete Works of Aristotle, Vol. 1: The Revised Oxford Translation (p. 1199).
Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Beasts in the skin of man”: Quoted in Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World (p. 42).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “In this primitive”: Quoted in Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World (p. 42).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “possessed and wrongfully”: Quoted in Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World (p. 42).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the greatest part”: Quoted in Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World (p. 42).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “they act like wolves”: Quoted in Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World (p. 47).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “are but brutes”: Quoted in Thomas (1983). Man and the Natural World (pp. 43–44).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT characterized as lacking: Reviewed in Nick Haslam (2006).
“Dehumanization: An integrative review.” Personality and Social Psychology Review 10 (3): 252–264.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Their reportedly high”: Gerald V. O’Brien (2003). “People with cognitive disabilities: The argument from marginal cases and social work ethics.” Social Work 48: 331–337.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a race of vermin”: Quoted in Katie Trumpener (1992). “The time of the Gypsies: A ‘people without history’ in the narratives of the West.” Critical Inquiry 18 (4): 843–884.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT David Livingstone Smith: David Livingstone Smith (2011). Less Than Human: Why We Demean, Enslave, and Exterminate Others. St.
Martin’s Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “These aren’t people”: See C-SPAN (@cspan) (May 16, 2018).
“President Trump during California #SanctuaryCities Roundtable: ‘These aren’t people. These are animals.’ ” Tweet.
https://x.com/cspan/status/996845374819192833.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Experimental research: Jacques-Philippe Leyens, Stéphanie Demoulin, Jeroen Vaes, Ruth Gaunt, and Maria Paola Paladino (2007).
“Infra-humanization: The wall of group differences.” Social Issues and Policy Review 1 (1): 139–172.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One set of studies by psychologist: Philip Atiba Goff, Jennifer L.
Eberhardt, Melissa J. Williams, and Matthew Christian Jackson (2008).
“Not yet human: Implicit knowledge, historical dehumanization, and contemporary consequences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 94 (2): 292–306.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Decolonial theorist Aph Ko: Animal Voices (October 18, 2019). “Aph Ko on speciesism as an extension of white supremacy.” Vancouver Co-op Radio (podcast).
https://animalvoices.org/2019/10/aph-ko-on-speciesism-as-an-extensionof-white-supremacy (around minute 43:00). See also Aph Ko (2019).
Racism as Zoological Witchcraft: A Guide to Getting Out. Lantern.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Lisa Guenther and Will Kymlicka: Lisa Guenther (2012). “Beyond dehumanization: A posthumanist critique of solitary confinement.” Journal for Critical Animal Studies 10 (2): 46–68; Will Kymlicka (2018).
“Human rights without human supremacism.” Canadian Journal of Philosophy 48 (6): 763–792.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “we cannot fully understand”: Guenther (2012). “Beyond dehumanization” (p. 59).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT known as the “interspecies model of prejudice”: Kimberly Costello and Gordon Hodson (2012).
“Explaining dehumanization among children: The interspecies model of prejudice.” British Journal of Social Psychology 53 (1): 175–197.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT beliefs in evolution: Stylianos Syropoulos, Uri Lifshin, Jeff Greenberg, Dylan E. Horner, and Bernhard Leidner (2022). “Bigotry and the human-animal divide: (Dis)belief in human evolution and bigoted attitudes across different cultures.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 123 (6): 1264–1292.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Kimberly Costello and colleagues: Kimberly Costello and Gordon Hodson (2010). “Exploring the roots of dehumanization: The role of animal-human similarity in promoting immigrant humanization.” Group Processes and Intergroup Relations 13 (1): 3–22; Brock Bastian, Kimberly Costello, Steve Loughnan, and Gordon Hodson (2012). “When closing the humananimal divide expands moral concern: The importance of framing.” Social Psychological and Personality Science 3 (4): 421–429. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT replicated even among children: Costello and Hodson (2012).
“Explaining dehumanization among children.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter four: pride that blinds Classic experiments on prosocial behavior: For example, Joan B. Silk et al. (2005). “Chimpanzees are indifferent to the welfare of unrelated group members.” Nature 437 (7063): 1357–1359; Claudio Tennie, Keith Jensen, and Josep Call (2016). “The nature of prosociality in chimpanzees.” Nature Communications 7 (13915); Michael Tomasello (2014). “The ultra-social animal.” European Journal of Social Psychology 44: 187–194.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT vary markedly across human cultures: Joseph Henrich, Steven J. Heine, and Ara Norenzayan (2010). “The WEIRDest people in the world?” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33: 61–83.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT sharing implies a contractual obligation: See Christophe Boesch (2010).
“Away from ethnocentrism and anthropocentrism: Towards a scientific understanding of ‘what makes us human.’ ” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33 (2–3): 86–87.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Marine foraging behavior: Matthew Lewis (2015). “Behavioural and isotope ecology of marineforaging chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) on the Cape Peninsula, South Africa.” PhD thesis, University of Cape Town.
https://open.uct.ac.za/bitstream/handle/11427/15610/thesis_sci_2015_le wis_matthew_charles.pd f?sequence=1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Studies on prison inmates: Rebecca Umbach, Adrian Raine, and Noelle R. Leonard (2018).
“Cognitive decline as a result of incarceration and the effects of a CBT/MT intervention: A cluster-randomized controlled trial.” Criminal Justice and Behavior 45 (1): 31–55.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One 2018 study: Martin Glabischnig (2018). “The value of lab and field studies for learning about the evolution of human cognition.” MSc thesis, University of Amsterdam.
https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.2.17120.74248. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In another analysis: Christophe Boesch (2007). “What makes us human (Homo sapiens)? The challenge of cognitive cross-species comparison.” Journal of Comparative Psychology 121 (3): 227–240.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chimps participate in highly coordinated: Liran Samuni, Anna Preis, Tobias Deschner, Catherine Crockford, and Roman M. Wittig (2018). “Reward of labor coordination and hunting success in wild chimpanzees.” Communications Biology 1 (138): 1–9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT wild chimps share not only meat: Liran Samuni et al. (2018). “Social bonds facilitate cooperative resource sharing in wild chimpanzees.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 285: 20181643.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT majority of mutual aid: Kevin E. Langergraber, John C. Mitani, and Linda Vigilant (2007). “The limited impact of kinship on cooperation in wild chimpanzees.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 104 (19): 7786–7790.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT some chimps are consistently more empathic: Christine E. Webb, Teresa Romero, Becca Franks, and Frans B. M. de Waal (2017). “Long-term consistency in chimpanzee consolation behaviour reflects empathetic personalities.” Nature Communications 8 (292).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One chimpanzee community: Nobuyuki Kutsukake and Duncan L.
Castles (2004). “Reconciliation and post-conflict third-party affiliation among wild chimpanzees in the Mahale Mountains, Tanzania.” Primates 45 (3): 157–165.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT another in the Budongo Forest: Kate Arnold and Andrew Whiten (2001).
“Post-conflict behaviour of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii) in the Budongo Forest, Uganda.” Behaviour 138 (5): 649–690.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT animals console bereaved group members: Zoë Goldsborough, Edwin J.
C. van Leeuwen, Kayla W. T. Kolff, Frans B. M. de Waal, and Christine E. Webb (2020). “Do chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) console a bereaved mother?” Primates 61 (1): 93–102.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT coalition support to allies: Reviewed in Christophe Boesch et al. (2019). The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest: 40 Years of Research. Cambridge University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT adopting unrelated orphans: Boesch et al. (2019). The Chimpanzees of the Taï Forest (pp. 141– 158).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “All direct ape-human comparisons”: David A. Leavens, Kim A. Bard, and William D. Hopkins (2014). “The mismeasure of ape social cognition” (p. 491). Animal Cognition 22 (4): 487–504.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT video on a set of studies: “Experiments with altruism in children and chimps.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-eU5xZW7cU. These videos are also available as separate downloads in the supplemental materials of the original Science article: Felix Warneken and Michael Tomasello (2006). “Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees.” Science 311 (5765): 1301–1303.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT subtle forms of encouragement: Note in particular how the father in the blue shirt nudges his child in the third video at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z-eU5xZW7cU.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “public enemy number one”: Richard Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. “President Nixon declares drug abuse ‘public enemy number one.’ ” Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y8TGLLQlD9M.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Rat Park residents consumed: See, for example, Bruce K. Alexander, Barry L. Beyerstein, Patricia F. Hadaway, and Robert B. Coambs (1981).
“Effect of early and later colony housing on oral ingestion of morphine in rats.” Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior 15 (4): 571–576.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “In both cases, the colonizers”: Bruce K. Alexander (2010). “Addiction: The view from Rat Park.” Accessed September 14, 2024. https://www.brucekalexander.com/articles-speeches/rat-park/148- addiction-the-view-from-rat-park.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Stephen Jay Gould exposed: Stephen Jay Gould (1981). The Mismeasure of Man. Norton.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A parallel systemic blindness: See Leavens et al. (2014). “The mismeasure of ape social cognition.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT psychologist Donald Hebb: Donald O. Hebb (1947). “The effects of early experience on problemsolving at maturity.” American Psychologist 2: 737–745.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT many studies have demonstrated: Reviewed in Becca Franks (2018).
“Cognition as a cause, consequence, and component of welfare.” In Joy A. Mench (ed.), Advances in Agricultural Animal Welfare (pp. 3–24).
Woodhead.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT wild-born chimps: Richard K. Davenport, Charles M. Rogers, and Duane M. Rumbaugh (1973).
“Long-term cognitive deficits in chimpanzees associated with early impoverished rearing.” Developmental Psychology 9 (3): 343–347.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT compared with isolated calves: Joao H. C. Costa, Marina A. G. von Keyserlingk, and Daniel M.
Weary (2016). “Effects of group housing of dairy calves on behavior, cognition, performance, and health.” Journal of Dairy Science 99 (4): 2453–2467.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT hens have higher well-being: Fernanda M. Tahamtani, Janicke Nordgreen, Rebecca E. Nordquist, and Andrew M. Janczak (2015).
“Early life in a barren environment adversely affects spatial cognition in laying hens (Gallus gallus domesticus).” Frontiers in Veterinary Science 2: 1–12.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT when cod in standard hatcheries: Victoria A. Braithwaite and Anne G. V.
Salvanes (2005). “Environmental variability in the early rearing environment generates behaviourally flexible cod: Implications for rehabilitating wild populations.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 272 (1568): 1107–1113.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT meme that went viral: We Don’t Deserve This Planet (May 17, 2020). Facebook.
https://m.facebook.com/WeDontDeserveEarth/posts/716797869067104.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT acute challenges are good: Michael Mendl (1999). “Performing under pressure: Stress and cognitive function.” Applied Animal Behaviour Science 65 (3): 221–244.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one 2017 study: Stephen Ferrigno, Julian Jara-Ettinger, Steven T.
Piantadosi, and Jessica F. Cantlon (2017). “Universal and uniquely human factors in spontaneous number perception.” Nature Communications 8 (13968).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT physically damages the brain: See, for instance, Bob Jacobs et al.
(2022). “Putative neural consequences of captivity for elephants and cetaceans.” Reviews in the Neurosciences 33 (4): 439–465; Lori Marino et al. (2020). “The harmful effects of captivity and chronic stress on the well-being of orcas (Orcinus orca).” Journal of Veterinary Behavior 35: 69–82.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “When Animals Lose Their Minds”: Laurel Braitman (June 9, 2014).
“When animals lose their minds.” Wall Street Journal.
https://www.wsj.com/articles/when-animals-lose-their-minds1402084124.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than 115 million animals: Humane Society International. “About animal testing.” Accessed November 17, 2022.
https://www.hsi.org/news-resources/about/#.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Success rates in human clinical trials: Derek Lowe (May 9, 2019). “The latest on drug failure and approval rates.” In the Pipeline (blog), Science.
Accessed December 2, 2022.
https://www.science.org/content/blog-post/latest-drug-failure-and-approv al-rates. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “every drug that fails”: Joseph P. Garner et al. (2017). “Introducing therioepistemology: The study of how knowledge is gained from animal research” (p. 103). Lab Animal 46 (4): 103–113.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT infinitesimal proportion of their average: Garet Lahvis (2017). “Make animal models more meaningful.” Nature 543: 623.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Research on laboratory rodent health: Jessica Cait et al. (2022).
“Conventional laboratory housing increases morbidity and mortality in research rodents: Results of a meta-analysis.” BMC Biology 20: 1–22.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT known as the “standardization fallacy”: Bernhard Voelkl, Hanno Würbel, Martin Krzywinski, and Naomi Altman (2021). “The standardization fallacy.” Nature Methods 18: 3–7.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a heated debate: For details, see Lars Chittka (2022). The Mind of a Bee (pp. 18–20). Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “By the scent”: Karl von Frisch (1971). Bees: Their Vision, Chemical Senses, and Language (p. 5).
Cornell University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “all cats are gray at night”: I borrow this suggestion from Chittka (2022).
The Mind of a Bee (p.
20).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in other animals—including BIZARRE: David A. Leavens, Kim A. Bard, and William D. Hopkins (2010). “BIZARRE chimpanzees do not represent the chimpanzee.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 33 (2–3): 100–101.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT STRANGE (“S” for “social”): Michael M. Webster and Christian Rutz (2020). “How STRANGE are your study animals?” Nature 582 (7812): 337–340.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Humans are born”: Christophe Boesch (2007). “What makes us human (Homo sapiens)? The challenge of cognitive cross-species comparison” (p. 228). Journal of Comparative Psychology 121 (3): 227–240.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “to predict and control”: B. F.
Skinner (1953). Science and Human Behavior (p. 35). Macmillan.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Ornaments of all kinds”: Charles Darwin (1871/1981). The Descent of Man, Vol. 2 (p. 86).
Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “When the same behavior”: Eileen Crist (1998). “The ethological constitution of animals as natural objects: The technical writings of Konrad Lorenz and Nikolaas Tinbergen” (p. 84). Biology and Philosophy 13 (1): 61–102.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT point to Morgan’s Canon: Conwy Lloyd Morgan (1894). An Introduction to Comparative Psychology. Walter Scott. The canon states: “In no case may we interpret an action as the outcomes of the exercise of a higher psychical faculty, if it can be interpreted as the outcome of the exercise of one which stands lower in the psychological scale” (p. 53).
The lesser-known addendum to Morgan’s Canon reads: “To this, however, it should be added, lest the range of the principle be misunderstood, that the canon by no means excludes the interpretation of a particular activity in terms of the higher processes if we already have independent evidence of the occurrences of these higher processes in the animal under observation” (p. 59).
In other words, if we already have evidence of mental processes in other species, then those processes should be considered valid explanations for behavior.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT evolutionary parsimony: For a rich discussion of cognitive versus evolutionary parsimony, see Frans B. M. de Waal (1999).
“Anthropomorphism and anthropodenial: Consistency in our thinking about humans and other animals.” Philosophical Topics 27 (1): 255–280.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a blindness to”: de Waal (1999). “Anthropomorphism and anthropodenial” (p. 258). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “to draw such a conclusion”: Brian L. Keeley (2004).
“Anthropomorphism, primatomorphism, mammalomorphism: Understanding cross-species comparisons” (p. 523). Biology and Philosophy 19 (4): 521–540. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT philosophical ethologist Dominique Lestel: See Matthew Chrulew (2014).
“The philosophical ethology of Dominique Lestel.” Angelaki 19 (3): 17–44.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations: Food and Agriculture Organization (2020). The State of the World’s Forests.
Accessed July 30, 2021. https://www.fao.org/state-offorests.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A 2019 Science study: Hjalmar S. Kühl et al. (2019). “Human impact erodes chimpanzee behavioral diversity.” Science 363 (6434): 1453–1455.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT appreciate that glyphosate: María Sol Balbuena et al. (2015). “Effects of sublethal doses of glyphosate on honeybee navigation.” Journal of Experimental Biology 218 (17): 2799–2805.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT disrupting the shoaling: Ashley J. W. Ward, Alison J. Duff, Jennifer S.
Horsfall, and Suzanne Currie (2008). “Scents and scents-ability: Pollution disrupts chemical social recognition and shoaling in fish.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 275 (1630): 101–105.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT That anthropogenic noise: Graeme Shannon et al. (2016). “A synthesis of two decades of research documenting the effects of noise on wildlife.” Biological Reviews 91 (4): 982–1005.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT One particularly telling study: Alison Osbrink et al. (2021). “Traffic noise inhibits cognitive performance in a songbird.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 288 (1944): 20202851.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Fossil-fuel combustion: Kristopher B. Karnauskas, Shelly L. Miller, and Anna C. Schapiro (2020). “Fossil fuel combustion is driving indoor CO2 toward levels harmful to human cognition.” GeoHealth 4: e2019GH000237.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Lead levels have: Bruce P.
Lanphear, Kim Dietrich, Peggy Auinger, and Christopher Cox (2000).
“Cognitive deficits associated with blood lead concentrations <10 μg/dL in US children and adolescents.” Public Health Reports 115 (6): 521–529.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT display symptoms of PTSD: Gay A. Bradshaw, Allan N. Schore, Janine L. Brown, Joyce H. Poole, and Cynthia J. Moss (2005). “Elephant breakdown.” Nature 433 (7028): 807.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ethical indifference to their study: See also John P. Gluck (2016).
Voracious Science and Vulnerable Animals: A Primate Scientist’s Ethical Journey. University of Chicago Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter five: the mismeasure of all things This American Life: Ira Glass (October 17, 1997). “Running after antelope.” This American Life, episode 80.
https://www.thisamericanlife.org/80/transcript.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT concept of the “umwelt”: Jakob von Uexküll (1992/1934). “A stroll through the worlds of animals and men: A picture book of invisible worlds.” Semiotica 89 (4): 319–391.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A 2020 study: Mary Caswell Stoddard et al. (2020). “Wild hummingbirds discriminate nonspectral colors.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117 (26): 15112–15122.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT circularly polarized light: Hanne H. Thoen, Martin J. How, Tsyr Huei Chiou, and Justin Marshall (2014). “A different form of color vision in mantis shrimp.” Science 343 (6169): 411–413.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT bioinspired optical devices: Benjamin A. Palmer et al. (2017). “The image-forming mirror in the eye of the scallop.” Science 358 (6367): 1172–1175.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT five times more: Erika Engelhaupt (April 23, 2017). “Inside the bizarre life of the star-nosed mole, world’s fastest eater.” National Geographic.
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/star-nosed-mole-tou ch-pain-senses.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT smell into account: Sarah L. Jacobson and Joshua M. Plotnik (2020).
“The importance of sensory perception in an elephant’s cognitive world.” Comparative Cognition and Behavior Reviews 15: 1–18.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT they can reportedly hear: Zeena Lemon (August 22, 2006). “The barn owl can hear a mouse’s heartbeat at 25 feet.” Worcester News.
https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/6543082.thisbarn-owl-can-heara-mouses-heartbeat-at-25ft/. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT discriminates between the fishes: Yossi Yovel and Whitlow W. L. Au (2010). “How can dolphins recognize fish according to their echoes? A statistical analysis of fish echoes.” PLOS ONE 5 (11): 1–10.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a kind of “electrotouch”: Ed Yong (2022). An Immense World: How Animal Senses Reveal the Hidden Realms Around Us (pp. 323–324).
Random House.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the length of a moment”: Von Uexküll (1992/1934). “A stroll through the worlds of animals and men” (p. 326).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT waving a finger: I borrow this suggestion from Charles Foster (2016).
Being a Beast (p. 195).
Picador.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Sloths have no right”: Quoted in Craig Holdrege (2019). “What does it mean to be a sloth?” (p. 7).
Nature Institute. http://natureinstitute.org/nature/sloth.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT animals with fast metabolic rates: Kevin Healy, Luke McNally, Graeme D.
Ruxton, Natalie Cooper, and Andrew L. Jackson (2013). “Metabolic rate and body size are linked with perception of temporal information.” Animal Behaviour 86 (4): 685–696.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Some birds can hear: I borrow this suggestion from Foster (2016). Being a Beast (p. 196).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT mirror self-recognition task: Gordon G. Gallup Jr. (1970). “Chimpanzees: Self-recognition.” Science 167: 86–87.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT have used a novel design: Alexandra Horowitz (2017). “Smelling themselves: Dogs investigate their own odours longer when modified in an ‘olfactory mirror’ test.” Behavioural Processes 143: 17– 24; Roberto Cazzolla Gatti (2016). “Self-consciousness: Beyond the looking-glass and what dogs found there.” Ethology, Ecology and Evolution 28 (2): 232–240.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT olfaction is typically neglected: Alexandra Horowitz and Becca Franks (2020). “What smells?
Gauging attention to olfaction in canine cognition research.” Animal Cognition 23 (1): 11–18.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a recent review: Miles K. Bensky, Samuel D. Gosling, and David L. Sinn (2013). “The world from a dog’s point of view: A review and synthesis of dog cognition research.” Advances in the Study of Behavior 45: 209–406.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “A dog can never”: Mary Oliver (2013). “Her grave.” In Dog Songs (p.
23). Penguin Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT researchers in human child development: Celia A. Brownell, Stephanie Zerwas, and Geetha B.
Ramani (2007). “ ‘So big’: The development of body self-awareness in toddlers.” Child Development 78 (5): 1426–1440.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in one recent study: Sridhar Ravi et al. (2020). “Bumblebees perceive the spatial layout of their environment in relation to their body size and form to minimize inflight collisions.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 117 (49): 31494–31499.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT distinguish the echoes: Eran Amichai, Gaddi Blumrosen, and Yossi Yovel (2015). “Calling louder and longer: How bats use biosonar under severe acoustic interference from other bats.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282: 20152064.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Don’t dolphins have “signature whistles”: Heidi E. Harley (2008). “Whistle discrimination and categorization by the Atlantic bottlenose dolphin (Tursiops truncatus): A review of the signature whistle framework and a perceptual test.” Behavioural Processes 77: 243–268.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT aptly titled book: Frans de Waal (2017). Are We Smart Enough to Know How Smart Animals Are?
Norton. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Quite simply, I was in love”: Joan Didion (1967). “Goodbye to all that.” In Slouching Towards Bethlehem (p. 228). Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Cognitive ethology—a field: See Donald R. Griffin (1998). “From cognition to consciousness.” Animal Cognition 1 (1): 3–16.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Man is the measure”: Explained in Joshua J. Mark. “Protagoras of Abdera: Of all things man is the measure.” World History Encyclopedia.
Last modified January 18, 2012.
https://www.worldhistory.org/article/61/protagoras-of-abdera-of-all-thingsman-is-the-meas/.
Protagoras’s statement has traditionally been interpreted as skepticism about the possibility of attaining objective knowledge. But in the comparative context emphasized here, it implies that humans are the ultimate yardstick against which other species’ abilities can be evaluated.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chimpanzees could beg: D. J. Povinelli and T. J. Eddy (1996). “Factors influencing young chimpanzees’ recognition of ‘attention.’ ” Journal of Comparative Psychology 110: 336–345.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Brian Hare and colleagues: Brian Hare, Josep Call, Bryan Agnetta, and Michael Tomasello (2000). “Chimpanzees know what conspecifics do and do not see.” Animal Behaviour 59 (4): 771–785.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT understood what others had seen: Brian Hare, Josep Call, and Michael Tomasello (2001). “Do chimpanzees know what conspecifics know?” Animal Behaviour 61 (1): 139–151.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Is Geometry a Language”: Siobhan Roberts (March 22, 2022). “Is geometry a language that only humans know?” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/03/22/science/geometry-mathbrain-prima tes.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “intuitions of geometry”: Mathias Sablé-Meyer et al. (2021). “Sensitivity to geometric shape regularity in humans and baboons: A putative signature of human singularity.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 118 (16): e2023123118. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Desert ants navigate: Matthias Wittlinger, Rudiger Wehner, and Harald Wolf (2006). “The ant odometer: Stepping on stilts and stumps.” Science 312: 1965–1967.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT African lions and spotted hyenas: Sarah Benson-Amram, Geoff Gilfillan, and Karen McComb (2017). “Numerical assessment in the wild: Insights from social carnivores.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373: 20160508.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Clark’s nutcracker retrieves food: Kathryn Schulz (March 29, 2021).
“Why animals don’t get lost.” New Yorker.
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2021/04/05/why-animals-dont-getl ost.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT homing pigeons, using precise: Schulz (March 29, 2021). “Why animals don’t get lost.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Life-forms don’t line up”: Martha C. Nussbaum (2018). “Working with and for animals: Getting the theoretical framework right” (p. 5). Journal of Human Development and Capabilities 19 (1): 2–18.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT favorite cartoons, seven animals: Marquette Educator (blog). Accessed January 20, 2021.
https://marquetteeducator.wordpress.com/wpcontent/uploads/2012/07/5 232012052424iwsmt.jpeg.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Smarter Than You Think”: Jonathan Leake and Georgia Warren (January 17, 2010). “Smarter than you think.” The Times.
https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/smarter-than-you-thinkhpzhntm5hr2.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Human intelligence is”: “Of bairns and brains.” (May 28, 2016). The Economist.
https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2016/05/28/of-bairn s-and-brains.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Humans May Be”: Nick Longrich (October 22, 2019). “Humans may be the only intelligent life in the universe, if evolution has anything to say.” Live Science.
https://www.livescience.com/evolution-says-humans-only-intelligent-life.h tml.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The Wikipedia entry: “Intelligence.” Wikipedia. Accessed February 10, 2021.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intelligence.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A 2007 study: Shane Legg and Marcus Hutter (2007). “A collection of definitions of intelligence.” Frontiers in Artificial Intelligence and Applications 57: 17–24.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one kind of intelligence: Juliane Braüer and colleagues labeled this restrictive perspective the “one cognition” approach, highlighting the tendency of comparative researchers to overrate human cognitive skills and to assume that certain skills cluster together in other animals as they do in humans. Juliane Bräuer, Daniel Hanus, Simone Pika, Russell Gray, and Natalie Uomini (2020).
“Old and new approaches to animal cognition: There is not ‘one cognition.’ ” Journal of Intelligence 8 (3): 1–25.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “To a lover of music”: Nussbaum (2018). “Working with and for animals” (p. 5).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT describes as a “double-edged sword”: Justin Gregg (2022). If Nietzsche Were a Narwhal. Little, Brown.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT human brand of these qualities: For instance, the zoologist Yosef Prat argues that comparative language studies often measure acoustic features that are conspicuous to humans, ignoring the unique communicative umwelt of the animal under consideration. Yosef Prat (2019). “Animals have no language, and humans are animals too.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 14 (5): 885–893.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It is of interest”: Quoted in Jonathan Balcombe (2010). Second Nature: The Inner Lives of Animals (p. 83). Palgrave Macmillan. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT observed that forager bees: Karl von Frisch (1993). The Dance Language and Orientation of Bees.
Harvard University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one second of dancing: BuzzAboutBees. “The honey bee dance.” Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://www.buzzaboutbees.net/Honey-Bee-Dance.html. Interestingly, however, different populations have different functions relating flight distance to dance duration. Fred C. Dyer (2002). “The biology of the dance language.” Annual Review of Entomology 47: 917–949.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 6,864 possible combinations: Con Slobodchikoff (2012). Chasing Doctor Dolittle: Learning the Language of Animals (p. 148). St. Martin’s Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT skin patterns of Caribbean reef squid: Martin Moynihan (1991).
Communication and Noncommunication by Cephalopods. Indiana University Press; Chun Yen Lin, Yueh Chun Tsai, and Chuan Chin Chiao (2017). “Quantitative analysis of dynamic body patterning reveals the grammar of visual signals during the reproductive behavior of the oval squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana.” Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution 5 (30): 1–16.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Human language is special”: Eva Meijer (2016). “Speaking with animals: Philosophical interspecies investigations.” In Morten Tønnessen, Kristin Armstrong Oma, and Silver Rattasepp (eds.), Thinking About Animals in the Age of the Anthropocene (p. 87). Lexington Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “is largely determined”: Ellen Dissanayake (1988). What Is Art For? (p.
119). University of Washington Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Music is characterized”: William Forde Thompson (2009). Music, Thought, and Feeling: Understanding the Psychology of Music (p. 38).
Oxford University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT zoomusicologist Hollis Taylor: Hollis Taylor (2013). “Connecting interdisciplinary dots: Songbirds, ‘white rats’ and human exceptionalism.” Social Science Information 52 (2): 287–306. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “everything about human music”: Iain McGilchrist (2009). The Master and His Emissary (p. 123).
Yale University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Songbirds regularly sing: Evangeline M. Rose, Nora H. Prior, and Gregory F. Ball (2022). “The singing question: Re-conceptualizing birdsong.” Biological Reviews 97 (1): 326–342.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “One could propose”: Taylor (2013). “Connecting interdisciplinary dots” (pp. 294–295).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Taylor also notes: Taylor (2013). “Connecting interdisciplinary dots” (p.
295).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The Superior Human?: The Superior Human? (2012).
DocumentaryTube.com.
https://www.documentarytube.com/videos/the-superior-human.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Some have suggested: Ted Chu (2014). Human Purpose and Transhuman Potential. Origin Press; Jonathan Marks (2015). Tales of the Ex-Apes. University of California Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT world’s largest beaver dam: Jean Thie. “The longest beaver dam in the world.” EcoInformatics International. Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://www.geostrategis.com/p_beaverslongestdam.htm.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT But termites’ mounds are: Hunter King, Samuel Ocko, and L.
Mahadevan (2015). “Termite mounds harness diurnal temperature oscillations for ventilation.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 112 (37): 11589–11593.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT termites had it figured out: Ulrich G. Mueller, Nicole M. Gerardo, Duur K.
Aanen, Diana L. Six, and Ted R. Schultz (2005). “The evolution of agriculture in insects.” Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36: 563–595. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Eastgate Centre in Zimbabwe: Never Enough Architecture. “The Eastgate Centre.” Accessed February 15, 2021.
https://neverenougharchitecture.com/project/the-eastgate-centre.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a feature scientists have co-opted: Frank E. Fish, Paul W. Weber, Mark M. Murray, and Laurens E.
Howle (2011). “The tubercles on humpback whales’ flippers: Application of bio-inspired technology.” Integrative and Comparative Biology 51 (1): 203–213.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Shinkansen in Japan: Jennifer Green and Anna Doble (producers) and Jules Bartl (animator). “How a kingfisher helped reshape Japan’s bullet train” (video). Thirty Animals That Made Us Smarter.
BBC. Accessed February 15, 2021.
https://www.bbc.com/news/av/science-environment47673287.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Velcro was invented: Jake Swearingen (2016). “An idea that stuck: How George de Mestral invented the Velcro brand fastener.” New York.
https://nymag.com/vindicated/2016/11/an-ideathat-stuck-how-george-demestral-invented-velcro.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Sponges knew how”: Corydon Ireland (December 4, 2008). “Scientists explore nature’s designs.” Harvard Gazette. https://news.harvard.edu/gazette/story/2008/12/scientists-explore-nature sdesigns.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Backed by 300 million years”: See https://www.spintex.co.uk.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Namib desert beetles: Wired (September 14, 2015). “Can Namib desert beetles help us solve our drought problems?” (video).
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TmyfqjXOf7M.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Miles Davis apparently honed: Nova Music Blog (October 2020). “Miles Davis.” Accessed March 1, 2021. https://novamusic.blog/miles-davis.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The composer Olivier Messiaen: Rob Hudson. “Olivier Messiaen, bird song, and Carnegie Hall.” Carnegie Hall. Accessed December 8, 2024.
https://www.carnegiehall.org/Explore/Articles/2021/04/14/Olivier-Messiae n-Bird-Song-andCarnegie-Hall.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “is full of genius”: Henry David Thoreau (January 5, 1856, journal entry).
Walden Woods Project.
https://www.walden.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Journal-8-Chapter3.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the installation MycoTunnel: See https://maelokko.com/Exhibitions.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “They’d stand on”: David McCullough (2016). The Wright Brothers (p.
52). Simon and Schuster.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “They would watch”: McCullough (2016). The Wright Brothers (p. 52).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Learning the secret of flight”: McCullough (2016). The Wright Brothers (p. 52).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT skills of non-primates “primatocentrism”: Marc Bekoff (1997). “Deep ethology, animal rights, and the Great Ape/Animal Project: Resisting speciesism and expanding the community of equals.” Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics 10 (3): 269–296.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT dubbed it “chimpocentrism”: Benjamin B. Beck (1982). “Chimpocentrism: Bias in cognitive ethology.” Journal of Human Evolution 11 (1): 3–17.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “common animal traits”: Thomas Suddendorf (November 21, 2013). “Are we really different from animals?” CNN.
https://www.cnn.com/2013/11/21/health/animals-humans-gap.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT This includes popular claims: See, for instance, American Psychological Association (August 10, 2009). “Dogs’ intelligence on par with two-year-old human, canine researcher says.” ScienceDaily.
https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/08/090810025241.htm; Richard Gray (August 9, 2009). “Dogs as intelligent as two-year-old-children.” The Telegraph.
https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/science/science-news/5994583/Dogsas-intelligent-as-twoyear-old-children.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “All living beings are”: Colin Allen (2001). “Cognitive relatives and moral relations.” In Benjamin B. Beck et al. (eds.), Great Apes and Humans at an Ethical Frontier (p. 3). Smithsonian Institution Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Conservation research is often biased: J. Alan Clark and Robert M. May (2002). “Taxonomic bias in conservation research.” Science 297 (5579): 191–192.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT termed the “so like us” approach: Nussbaum (2018). “Working with and for animals” (p. 3).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “In short, if we line up”: Nussbaum (2018). “Working with and for animals” (p. 5).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT My doctoral research: Christine E. Webb (2015). “Moving past conflict: How locomotion facilitates reconciliation in humans and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes).” PhD thesis, Columbia University.
https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8PV6JG1.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a theory paper: Christine E. Webb, Maya Rossignac-Milon, and E. Tory Higgins (2017). “Stepping forward together: Could walking facilitate interpersonal conflict resolution?” American Psychologist 72 (4): 374–385.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Research has since: See, for example, Gray Atherton and Liam Cross (2020). “Walking in my shoes: Imagined synchrony improves attitudes towards out-groups.” Psychological Studies 65 (4): 351– 359.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The challenge, then, becomes”: Philip Ball (June 11, 2022). “Animal magic: Why intelligence isn’t just for humans.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/books/2022/jun/11/animalmagic-why-intelli gence-isnt-just-for-humans.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “space of possible minds”: Aaron Sloman (1984). “The structure of the space of possible minds.” In Stephen B. Torrance and Ellis Horwood (eds.), The Mind and the Machine: Philosophical Aspects of Artificial Intelligence (pp. 35–42). Halsted Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT also known as Erwin’s Law: Rob Dunn (2021). A Natural History of the Future. Basic Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT with a single study in a Panamanian rainforest: Terry L. Erwin (1982).
“Tropical forests: Their richness in Coleoptera and other arthopod species.” Coleopterists Bulletin 36 (1): 74–75. Erwin’s methods were brutal; he sprayed a fog of pesticide into the tree canopy, then collected and identified all the beetles who fell to the forest floor.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “plant blindness” that makes us: James H. Wandersee and Elisabeth E.
Schussler (1999).
“Preventing plant blindness.” American Biology Teacher 61 (2): 82–86.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “because biology is taught”: Wandersee and Schussler (1999).
“Preventing plant blindness” (p. 82).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than sixteen thousand known species of moss: Leath Tonino (April 2016). “Two ways of knowing.” The Sun.
https://www.thesunmagazine.org/articles/22248-two-ways-of-knowing.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT with every inhale: Janine Fröhlich-Nowoisky, Daniel A. Pickersgill, Viviane R. Després, and Ulrich Pöschl (2009). “High diversity of fungi in air particulate matter.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 106 (31): 12814–12819.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Dunn and his colleagues found: Albert Barberán et al. (2015). “The ecology of microscopic life in household dust.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 282: 20151139.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Some estimate that: Kenneth J. Locey and Jay T. Lennon (2016).
“Scaling laws predict global microbial diversity.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113 (21): 5970–5975.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Erwin’s estimate had led scientists”: Dunn (2021). A Natural History of the Future (p. 28).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Our perception of the world”: Dunn (2021). A Natural History of the Future (p. 28).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter six: thinking otherwise classic 1974 essay: Thomas Nagel (1974). “What is it like to be a bat?” Philosophical Review 83 (4): 435–450.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “There is nothing that we know”: David J. Chalmers (1995). “Facing up to the problem of consciousness.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 2 (3): 200–219.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT something it is like: Though most people trace this definition of consciousness back to Nagel (1974), it appears somewhat earlier in Timothy L. S. Sprigge and Alan Montefiore (1971). “Final causes.” Aristotelian Society Supplementary 45 (1): 149–192.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT led by Robert Feldman: Robert S. Feldman, James A. Forrest, and Benjamin R. Happ (2002). “Selfpresentation and verbal deception: Do self-presenters lie more?” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 24 (2): 163–170.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The conventional view”: Robert L. Trivers (2006). Foreword to Richard Dawkins’s The Selfish Gene (p. 20). Oxford University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT we lie to ourselves: Robert Trivers (2011). The Folly of Fools: The Logic of Deceit and SelfDeception in Human Life. Basic Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT On a scale of 1 to 7: The items here were adapted from the Prosocialness Scale for Adults. Gian Vittorio Caprara, Patrizia Steca, Arnaldo Zelli, and Cristina Capanna (2005). “A new scale for measuring adults’ prosocialness.” European Journal of Psychological Assessment 21 (2): 77–89.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT So-called subliminal stimuli: See John A. Bargh and Tanya L. Chartrand (2014). “The mind in the middle: A practical guide to priming and automaticity research.” In Harry T. Reis and Charles M. Judd (eds.), Handbook of Research Methods in Social and Personality Psychology (pp. 311– 344). Cambridge University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT human behavior expresses: Sara J. Shettleworth (2010). “Clever animals and killjoy explanations in comparative psychology.” Trends in Cognitive Science 14: 477–481.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT third “narcissistic wound”: Sigmund Freud (1917/1955). “A difficulty in the path of psychoanalysis.” In James Strachey (ed.), The Complete Psychological Works of Sigmund Freud, Vol.
17 (pp. 137–144). Hogarth.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT much deeper role: George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1999). Philosophy in the Flesh. Basic Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT human memory is less reliable: Armin Schnider (2008). The Confabulating Mind: How the Brain Creates Reality. Oxford University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT anthropofabulation: Cameron Buckner (2013). “Morgan’s canon, meet Hume’s dictum: Avoiding anthropofabulation in cross-species comparisons.” Biology and Philosophy 28 (5): 853–871.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT nonverbal cues are: Judith A. Hall, Terrence G. Horgan, and Nora A.
Murphy (2019). “Nonverbal communication.” Annual Review of Psychology 70: 271–294.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Jij en ik…”: Quoted in Harry Wels (2013). “Whispering empathy: Transdisciplinary reflections on research methodology.” In Bert Musschenga and Anton van Harskamp (eds.), What Makes Us Moral?
(p. 158). Springer Science.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The tendency to demand”: Donald R. Griffin (1998). “From cognition to consciousness” (p. 13).
Animal Cognition 1 (1): 3–16.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “ ‘Can they suffer?’ ”: Jeremy Bentham (1789/1948). An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation. Hafner Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness: Philip Low et al. (2012). “The Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness.” Francis Crick Memorial Conference on Consciousness in Human and NonHuman Animals.
https://fcmconference.org/img/CambridgeDeclarationOnConsciousness.
pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a relic of attempts”: Donald M. Broom (2001). “The evolution of pain.” Flemish Veterinary Journal 70: 17–21.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT injected trouts’ lips: Lynne U. Sneddon, Victoria A. Braithwaite, and Michael J. Gentle (2003). “Do fishes have nociceptors? Evidence for the evolution of a vertebrate sensory system.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 270 (1520): 1115–1121.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT responses are ameliorated: For a review, see Katherine A. Sloman, Ian A. Bouyoucos, Edward J.
Brooks, and Lynne U. Sneddon (2019). “Ethical considerations in fish research.” Journal of Fish Biology 94 (4): 556–577.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT invertebrates like crustaceans: For a review, see Robert W. Elwood (2019). “Discrimination between nociceptive reflexes and more complex responses consistent with pain in crustaceans.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 374: 20190368.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT crustaceans don’t have this ability: Animals Australia. “6 incredible facts that will change the way you think about lobsters.” Accessed May 2, 2021. https://animalsaustralia.org/latest-news/6- incredible-lobster-facts.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT across a large part: Robyn J. Crook, Roger T. Hanlon, and Edgar T.
Walters (2013). “Squid have nociceptors that display widespread long-term sensitization and spontaneous activity after bodily injury.” Journal of Neuroscience 33 (24): 10021–10026.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT growing evidence to suggest they will be: Matilda Gibbons, Andrew Crump, Meghan Barrett, Sajedeh Sarlak, Jonathan Birch, and Lars Chittka (2022). “Can insects feel pain?
A review of the neural and behavioural evidence.” Advances in Insect Physiology 63: 155–229.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “There may be extraordinary”: Charles Darwin (1871/1981). The Descent of Man, Vol. 1 (p. 145).
Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT are exquisitely complex: Lars Chittka and Jeremy Niven (2009). “Are bigger brains better?” Current Biology 19 (21): R995–R1008.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT philosopher Jeff Sebo points out: Jeff Sebo (July 27, 2021). “Don’t farm bugs.” Aeon.
https://aeon.co/essays/on-the-torment-of-insect-minds-and-our-moral-dut y-not-to-farm-them.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Nearly every gene: Kay Prüfer et al. (2012). “The bonobo genome compared with the chimpanzee and human genomes.” Nature 486 (7404): 527–531.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Our kind has fewer genes: Alexander Werth (2012). “Avoiding the pitfall of progress and associated perils of evolutionary education.” Evolution: Education and Outreach 5 (2): 249–265.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the most complex object”: Quoted in Science Friday (June 14, 2013).
“Decoding ‘the most complex object in the known universe.’ ” NPR.
https://www.npr.org/2013/06/14/191614360/decoding-the-most-complexobject-in-the-universe.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the most complicated organization”: Isaac Asimov (1986). Foreword (p.
xv) in Judith Hooper and Dick Teresi. The Three-Pound Universe.
Macmillan.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT brains of parrots and songbirds: Seweryn Olkowicz et al. (2016). “Birds have primate-like numbers of neurons in the forebrain.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 113 (26): 7255–7260.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT linearly scaled-up primate brain: Suzana Herculano-Houzel (2012). “The remarkable, yet not extraordinary, human brain as a scaled-up primate brain and its associated cost.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109 (1): 10661–10668; Suzana Herculano-Houzel (2009). “The human brain in numbers: A linearly scaled-up primate brain.” Frontiers in Human Neuroscience 3 (31): 1–11.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT are less remarkable: See, for example, Robert A. Barton and Chris Venditti (2013). “Human frontal lobes are not relatively large.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110 (22): 9001–9006; Ralph L. Holloway (2002). “How much larger is the relative volume of area 10 of the prefrontal cortex in humans?” American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (4): 399–401.
At best, we stand out in the relative size of the cerebral cortex as a percentage of brain mass, but not by much. The human cerebral cortex is the largest among mammals in its relative size, at 75.5 percent, 75.7 percent, or even 84 percent (depending on the study) of the entire brain mass of volume. But other animals are not far off: the cerebral cortex represents 73 percent of the entire brain mass of chimpanzees, 73.4 percent in the short-finned whale, and 74.5 percent in the horse. See Herculano-Houzel (2012). “The remarkable, yet not extraordinary, human brain” (p. 10661).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The human brain is so unique”: Brian Resnick (May 23, 2018). “Why do humans have such huge brains? Scientists have a few hypotheses.” Vox.
https://www.vox.com/science-andhealth/2018/5/23/17377200/human-bra in-size-evolution-nature.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT roughly $12 billion: Matej Mikulic (May 16, 2024). “Total neuroscience funding by the NIH from FY 2013 to FY 2025.” Statista.
https://www.statista.com/statistics/712866/total-neurosciencefunding-by-t he-national-institutes-for-health/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “If it seems”: Gary Marcus (April 22, 2013). “The mystery of human uniqueness.” Nautilus.
https://nautil.us/the-mystery-of-human-uniqueness-234309.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT avian pallium is nucleated: Erich D. Jarvis et al. (2005). “Avian brain and vertebrate brain evolution.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 6 (2): 151–159.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “everything we don’t really understand”: Quoted in Ferris Jabr (November 7, 2012). “How brainless slime molds redefine intelligence.” Scientific American.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/brainless-slime-molds.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT pattern of the cities: Atsushi Tero et al. (2010). “Rules for biologically inspired adaptive network design.” Science 327 (22): 439–442.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT took only twice as long: Liping Zhu, Song Ju Kim, Masahiko Hara, and Masashi Aono (2018).
“Remarkable problem-solving ability of unicellular amoeboid organism and its mechanism.” Royal Society Open Science 5: 180396.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Evidence is mounting: For a helpful primer to this area of research, see Michael Pollan (December 15, 2013). “The intelligent plant.” New Yorker.
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/12/23/the-intelligent-plant.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Trees do not have”: Quoted in Richard Grant (March 2018). “Do trees talk to each other?” Smithsonian. https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-whispering-trees-1 80968084.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an influential book: Peter Tompkins and Christopher Bird (1973). The Secret Life of Plants. Harper and Row.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT series of studies: Monica Gagliano, Michael Renton, Martial Depczynski, and Stefano Mancuso (2014). “Experience teaches plants to learn faster and forget slower in environments where it matters.” Oecologia 175 (1): 63–72.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT they quickly fold: NikTheCat (January 7, 2008). “Mimosa pudica—the sensitive plant.” https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BLTcVNyOhUc&t=20s.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a logical statement”: Derrick Jensen (2016). The Myth of Human Supremacy (p. 36). Seven Stories Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “are thus revealed as endless”: James Bridle (2022). Ways of Being (p.
76). Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT release oils and chemicals: Heidi M. Appel and Rex B. Cocroft (2014).
“Plants respond to leaf vibrations caused by insect herbivore chewing.” Oecologia 175 (4): 1257–1266.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT lima bean plants: Marcel Dicke et al. (1990). “Isolation and identification of volatile kairomone that affects acarine predator-prey interactions.” Journal of Chemical Ecology 16 (2): 381–396.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chemical messages that warn: Richard Karban, Louie H. Yang, and Kyle F. Edwards (2014).
“Volatile communication between plants that affects herbivory: A meta-analysis.” Ecology Letters 17 (1): 44–52.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT fungal “wood wide web”: Monika A. Gorzelak, Amanda K. Asay, Brian J.
Pickles, and Suzanne W. Simard (2015). “Inter-plant communication through mycorrhizal networks mediates complex adaptive behaviour in plant communities.” AoB Plants 7: plv050.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT from other plant species: See, for example, Satoru Sukegawa et al.
(2018). “Pest management using mint volatiles to elicit resistance in soy: Mechanism and application potential.” Plant Journal 96 (5): 910–920.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT single root apex can detect: Amy Fleming (April 5, 2020). “The secret life of plants: How they memorise, communicate, problem solve and socialize.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/apr/05/smarty-plants-ar e-our-vegetablecousins-more-intelligent-than-we-realise.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT recognize self from nonself: Michal Gruntman and Ariel Novoplansky (2004). “Physiologically mediated self/non-self discrimination in roots.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 101 (11): 3863–3867.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT searocket plants: Mudra V. Bhatt, Aditi Khandelwal, and Susan A.
Dudley (2011). “Kin recognition, not competitive interactions, predicts root allocation in young Cakile edentula seedling pairs.” New Phytologist 189 (4): 1135–1142.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT networks facilitate recovery: Yuan Yuan Song, Suzanne W. Simard, Allan Carroll, William W.
Mohn, and Ren Sen Zeng (2015). “Defoliation of interior Douglas-fir elicits carbon transfer and stress signalling to ponderosa pine neighbors through ectomycorrhizal networks.” Scientific Reports 5: 1–9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT dosed-up Mimosa plants: Ken Yokawa et al. (2018). “Anaesthetics stop diverse plant organ movements, affect endocytic vesicle recycling and ROS homeostasis, and block action potentials in Venus flytraps.” Annals of Botany 122 (5): 747–756.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT compounds that are anesthetic: František Baluška and Ken Yokawa (2021). “Anaesthetics and plants: From sensory systems to cognition-based adaptive behaviour.” Protoplasma 258: 449– 454. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “They’re living organisms”: Quoted in JoAnna Klein (February 2, 2018).
“Sedate a plant, and it seems to lose consciousness. Is it conscious?” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2018/02/02/science/plants-consciousness-ane sthesia.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “If we would embrace”: Quoted in Leath Tonino (April 2016). “Two ways of knowing.” The Sun.
https://www.thesunmagazine.org/issues/484/two-ways-of-knowing.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The Power of Movement in Plants: Charles Darwin and Francis Darwin (1880). The Power of Movement in Plants. John Murray.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT root-brain hypothesis: František Baluška, Stefano Mancuso, Dieter Volkmann, and Peter Barlow (2009). “The ‘root-brain’ hypothesis of Charles and Francis Darwin.” Plant Signaling and Behavior 4 (12): 1121–1127.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the first to admit: Paco Calvo, Monica Gagliano, Gustavo M. Souza, and Anthony Trewavas (2020).
“Plants are intelligent, here’s how.” Annals of Botany 125 (1): 11–28.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The answer, unreservedly, is ‘no’ ”: Devang Mehta (February 14, 2018).
“Plants are not conscious, whether you can ‘sedate’ them or not.” Massive Science.
https://massivesci.com/articles/plants-conscious-intelligence-movementsedate.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “No brain, no pain”: Quoted in Pollan (2013). “The intelligent plant.” For a sense of the opposition, see also Lincoln Taiz et al. (2019). “Plants neither possess nor require consciousness.” Trends in Plant Science 24 (8): 677–687.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Perception, memory, valence”: Pamela Lyon (October 21, 2012). “On the origin of minds.” Aeon.
https://aeon.co/essays/the-study-of-the-mind-needs-a-copernican-shift-in -perspective. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT known as panpsychism: See Philip Goff (2019). Galileo’s Error: Foundations for a New Science of Consciousness. Pantheon Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the sentience of the more-than-human world: This phrase was coined by David Abram (1996). The Spell of the Sensuous. Vintage Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter seven: relationship matters In a landmark paper: Barbara Smuts (2001). “Encounters with animal minds.” Journal of Consciousness Studies 8 (5–7): 293–309.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Japanese word kyokan: Masao Kawai (1969). Nihonzaru no Seitai (Ecology of Japanese Monkeys).
Kawade Shobo Shinsha. See also Pamela J. Asquith (1996). “Japanese science and Western hegemonies: Primatology and the limits set to questions.” In Laura Nader (ed.), Naked Science: Anthropological Inquiry into Boundaries, Power, and Knowledge (pp. 239–256). Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “You can’t study men”: C. S. Lewis (1946). That Hideous Strength (pp.
70–71). Macmillan.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In one longitudinal study: Christine E. Webb, Becca Franks, Teresa Romero, E. Tory Higgins, and Frans B. M. de Waal (2014). “Individual differences in chimpanzee reconciliation relate to social switching behaviour.” Animal Behaviour 90: 57–63.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT striking personality differences: Christine E. Webb, Teresa Romero, Becca Franks, and Frans B. M.
de Waal (2017). “Long-term consistency in chimpanzee consolation behaviour reflects empathetic personalities.” Nature Communications 8 (292).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chimpanzees even express stress: Zoë Goldsborough, Elisabeth H. M.
Sterck, Frans B. M. de Waal, and Christine E. Webb (2022). “Individual variation in chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) repertoires of abnormal behaviour.” Animal Welfare 31 (1): 125–135.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “My awareness of”: Smuts (2001). “Encounters with animal minds” (p.
301).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “I have no doubt”: Len Howard (1952). Birds as Individuals (p. 18).
Collins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Humans who are over-conceited”: Len Howard (1956). Living with Birds (p. 127). Collins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “There was no trouble”: Howard (1952). Birds as Individuals (p. 149).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It is a significant fact”: Charles Darwin (1871/1981). The Descent of Man, Vol. 1 (p. 46). Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT philosopher Mary Midgley: Mary Midgley (2001). “Being objective.” Nature 410 (6830): 753.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT it confounds “objectivity”: I borrow this suggestion from Becca Franks.
See https://www.watrlab.org/values.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT colleagues and I call “the empathy taboo”: Christine Webb, Becca Franks, Monica Gagliano, and Barbara Smuts (2023). “Un-tabooing empathy: The benefits of empathic science with nonhuman research participants.” In Francesca Mezzenzana and Daniela Peluso (eds.), Conversations on Empathy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Imagination and Radical Othering (pp. 216–234).
Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Cartesian and behaviorist ideologies: The assumption that some purely objective standpoint is even possible is traceable to Descartes’s well-known separation of the immaterial human mind (or subject) from the material, mechanical world of nature, including the body (or objects).
Later, the school of behaviorism would also emphasize detachment from the entities and events being observed, lest engaging alter animal behavior or prompt one to make unscientific interpretations of animals’ lives.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Here, what we do not know”: Stanley Cavell (1976). Must We Mean What We Say? A Book of Essays (p. 69). Cambridge University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT rats and mice behaved differently: Robert E. Sorge et al. (2014). “Olfactory exposure to males, including men, causes stress and related analgesia in rodents.” Nature Methods 11: 629–632.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Mogil disclosed in an interview: Quoted in McGill Newsroom (April 28, 2014). “The scent of a man.” https://www.mcgill.ca/newsroom/channels/news/scent-man-235492.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one 2022 study found: Polymnia Georgiou et al. (2022). “Experimenters’ sex modulates mouse behaviors and neural responses to ketamine via corticotropin releasing factor.” Nature Neuroscience 25 (9): 1191–1200.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Beings do not pre-exist”: Donna Haraway (2003). The Companion Species Manifesto (p. 6).
Prickly Paradigm Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT relationship between scientist and subject: Studies on overimitation—the tendency to copy a demonstrator’s actions that are not necessary to achieve a goal—also reveal why human-animal relationships should be taken more seriously. It has been claimed that overimitation is a uniquely human capacity, thought to play a key role in explaining why human culture can accumulate over time. According to the philosopher Kristen Andrews, however, claims that other species don’t engage in overimitation are based on studies that don’t take into account the relationship between observer and subject. While chimpanzees don’t overimitate in experiments, there is evidence that they do overimitate in-group members (Tetsuro Matsuzawa, who has a lifetime research relationship with the chimpanzee Ai, found that she overimitated his irrelevant tool use). Supporting this relational interpretation, recent studies find that dogs overimitate their caregivers but not unknown researchers. See Kristin Andrews (2020). How to Study Animal Minds.
Cambridge University Press; Ludwig Huber, Kaja Salobir, Roger Mundry, and Giulia Cimarelli (2020). “Selective overimitation in dogs.” Learning and Behavior 48 (1): 113–123. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “If the eighth day”: Oskar Pfungst (1911). Clever Hans (p. 22). Henry Holt.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “merely a motor reaction”: Pfungst (1911). Clever Hans (p. 221).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “no manner of intelligence”: Pfungst (1911). Clever Hans (p. 79).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT How ironic that one of: Two scholars encourage us to rethink the legacy of this notorious scandal: Eileen Crist (1997). “From questions to stimuli, from answers to reactions: The case of Clever Hans.” Semiotica 113 (1–2): 1–42; Vinciane Despret (2015). “Who made Clever Hans stupid?” (trans. Matthew Chrulew). Angelaki 20 (2): 77–85.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The understandings we derive”: Arnold Arluke and Clinton R. Sanders (1996). Regarding Animals (p. 78). Temple University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “A face, a signature”: Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1945/2002).
Phenomenology of Perception (p. 67).
Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the writer Melanie Challenger argues: Melanie Challenger (2021). How to Be Animal. Penguin.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT counterpart in modern physics: For example, Carlo Rovelli (1996).
“Relational quantum mechanics.” International Journal of Theoretical Physics 35 (8): 1637–1678.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a new shared language: This notion is explored further in Stuart G.
Shanker and Barbara J. King (2002). “The emergence of a new paradigm in ape language research.” Behavioral and Brain Sciences 25 (5): 646–656.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT with other species as “strange kinship”: Maurice Merleau-Ponty (2003).
Nature (p. 214).
Northwestern University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “shared embodiment in a shared world”: Kelly Oliver (2007). “Stopping the anthropological machine: Agamben with Heidegger and Merleau-Ponty” (p. 18). PhaenEx 2 (2): 1–23.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “What Does a Parrot Know”: Charles Siebert (January 28, 2016). “What does a parrot know about PTSD?” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2016/01/31/magazine/what-does-a-parrotknow -about-ptsd.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Clinical psychologist Olga Solomon: Olga Solomon (2015). “ ‘But—he’ll fall!’: Children with autism, interspecies intersubjectivity, and the problem of ‘being social.’ ” Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry 39: 323–344.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT aquariums had improved outcomes: Nancy E. Edwards and Alan M.
Beck (2002). “Animalassisted therapy and nutrition in Alzheimer’s disease.” Western Journal of Nursing Research 24 (6): 697–712.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It is difficult to escape”: James A. Serpell (2010). “Animal-assisted interventions in historical perspective.” In Aubrey H. Fine (ed.), Handbook on Animal-Assisted Therapy (3rd ed., p. 29).
Elsevier.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT shown promise in treating: For reviews, see Fabrizio Bert et al. (2016).
“Animal assisted intervention: A systematic review of benefits and risks.” European Journal of Integrative Medicine 8: 695–706; Janelle Nimer and Brad Lundahl (2007). “Animal-assisted therapy: A meta-analysis.” Anthrozoös 20 (3): 225–238.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT four hundred million companion animals: The Animal Health Institute Primer (2022). “The economic and social contributions of the animal health industry” (p. 2).
https://ahi.org/wpcontent/uploads/AHI-Primer-December-2022-Final-w-In fographic.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than two-thirds of all households: The Animal Health Institute Primer (2022). “The economic and social contributions of the animal health industry” (p. 3). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than 90 percent of those: The Animal Health Institute Primer (2022). “The economic and social contributions of the animal health industry” (p. 3). GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Studies consistently show: The Animal Health Institute Primer (2022). “The economic and social contributions of the animal health industry” (p. 17).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT accelerates the healing process: See Kaitlyn Gillis and Birgitta Gatersleben (2015). “A review of psychological literature on the health and wellbeing benefits of biophilic design.” Buildings 5 (3): 948–963; Roger S. Ulrich (1993). “Biophilia, biophobia, and natural landscapes.” In Stephen R. Kellert and Edward O. Wilson (eds.), The Biophilia Hypothesis (pp. 73–137). Island Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT formerly incarcerated individuals: Megan Holmes and Tina M. Waliczek (2019). “The effect of horticultural community service programs on recidivism.” HortTechnology 29 (4): 490–495.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT humans have a “need to belong”: Kelly Ann Allen, DeLeon L. Gray, Roy F. Baumeister, and Mark R. Leary (2022). “The need to belong: A deep dive into the origins, implications, and future of a foundational construct.” Educational Psychology Review 34 (2): 1133–1156.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reveal a “ripple effect”: Lisa J. Wood, Billie Giles-Corti, Max K. Bulsara, and Darcy A. Bosch (2007). “More than a furry companion: The ripple effect of companion animals on neighborhood interactions and sense of community.” Society and Animals 15: 43–56.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT sense of neighborhood stability: Art McCabe (2014). “Community gardens to fight urban youth crime and stabilize neighborhoods.” International Journal of Child Health and Human Development 7 (3): 1–14.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “slow looking” exercise: The concept of “slow looking” is explored in depth in Shari Tishman (2017). Slow Looking: The Art and Practice of Learning Through Observation. Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In his 1923 book: Martin Buber (1923/1970). I and Thou (trans. Walter Kaufmann). Scribner.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “All real living is meeting”: Buber (1923/1970). I and Thou (p. 11).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter eight: the entangled bank “when we try to pick out”: John Muir (1988/1911). My First Summer in the Sierra (p. 110). Sierra Club Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT increase in sociosexual: Jake S. Brooker, Christine E. Webb, Edwin J. C.
van Leeuwen, Stephanie Kordon, Frans B. M. de Waal, and Zanna Clay (2025). “Bonobos and chimpanzees overlap in sexual behaviour patterns during social tension.” Royal Society Open Science 12 (3): 242031.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT sometimes called “nature, red in tooth and claw”: This expression is taken from Alfred Lord Tennyson’s 1950 poem “In Memoriam A. H. H.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT selfish genes don’t necessarily make: Quoted in Faith and Reason.
“Richard Dawkins interview transcript.” PBS. Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://www.pbs.org/faithandreason/transcript/dawk-frame.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “I use the term”: Charles Darwin (1859/1902). On the Origin of Species (p. 101). American Home Library.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT an entangled bank: Darwin (1859/1902). On the Origin of Species (p.
315).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “It will have been”: Charles Darwin (1871/1981). The Descent of Man, Vol. 1 (p. 82). Princeton University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Don’t compete!”: Peter Kropotkin (1902). Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution (p. 62). Knopf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT variation within the two species: Jake S. Brooker, Christine E. Webb, Frans B. M. de Waal, and Zanna Clay (2024). “The expression of empathy in human’s closest living relatives, bonobos and chimpanzees: Current and future directions.” Biological Reviews 99 (4): 1556–1575. A similar picture is emerging in the wild. In a recent study comparing rates of male aggression in three wild bonobo communities at the Kokolopori Bonobo Reserve, Democratic Republic of Congo, and two chimpanzee communities at Gombe National Park, Tanzania, researchers found that Kokolopori bonobos showed higher overall rates of male-male aggression than Gombe chimpanzees. See Maud Mouginot, Michael L. Wilson, Nisarg Desai, and Martin Surbeck (2024).
“Differences in expression of male aggression between wild bonobos and chimpanzees.” Current Biology 34: 1780–1785.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Suzanne Simard, a professor: See her moving memoir: Suzanne Simard (2021). Finding the Mother Tree. Knopf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cover of Nature: Suzanne W. Simard, David A. Perry, Melanie D. Jones, David D. Myrold, Daniel M. Durrall, and Randy Molina (1997). “Net transfer of carbon between ectomycorrhizal tree species in the field.” Nature 388: 579–582.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT protecting the plants against pests: See, for example, Yuan Yuan Song, Suzanne W. Simard, Allan Carroll, William W. Mohn, and Ren Sen Zeng (2015). “Defoliation of interior Douglas-fir elicits carbon transfer and stress signalling to ponderosa pine neighbors through ectomycorrhizal networks.” Scientific Reports 5: 1–9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The old foresters”: Quoted in Ferris Jabr (December 2, 2020). “The social life of forests.” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2020/12/02/magazine/tree-communi cationmycorrhiza.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Skepticism about Simard’s research: See, for example, Justine Karst, Melanie D. Jones, and Jason D. Hoeksema (2023). “Positive citation bias and overinterpreted results lead to misinformation on common mycorrhizal networks in forests.” Nature Ecology and Evolution 7 (4): 501–511.
For an article summarizing the key arguments, see Gabriel Popkin (November 7, 2022). “Are trees talking underground? For scientists, it’s in dispute.” New York Times.
https://www.nytimes.com/2022/11/07/science/trees-fungi-talking.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “We don’t ask”: Quoted in Richard Grant (March 2018). “Do trees talk to each other?” Smithsonian.
https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/the-whispering-trees-1 80968084.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “in nature we never”: Quoted in James Wood (1893). Dictionary of Quotations from Ancient and Modern, English and Foreign Sources (p.
188). Warne.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “is interaction and reciprocal”: Quoted in Andrea Wulf (2015). The Invention of Nature (p. 59).
John Murray.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the subversive science”: Paul Shepard and Daniel McKinley (eds.) (1969). The Subversive Science: Essays Toward an Ecology of Man.
Houghton Mifflin. See also Paul Sears (1964).
“Ecology: A subversive subject.” BioScience 14: 11–13.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT notable offshoot is deep ecology: Arne Naess (1973). “The shallow and the deep, long-range ecology movement.” Inquiry 16 (1–4): 95–100.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Influential thinkers have cautioned: See, for example, Timothy Morton (2007). Ecology Without Nature. Harvard University Press; Bruno Latour (1993). We Have Never Been Modern. Harvard University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Strathern’s studies of the Hagen: Marilyn Strathern (1980). “No nature, no culture: The Hagen case.” In Carol MacCormack and Marilyn Strathern (eds.), Nature, Culture and Gender (pp.
174–222). Cambridge University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the word “dividual”: Marilyn Strathern (1988). The Gender of the Gift.
University of California Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a fungus and an alga: Newer research suggests a third partner (a type of yeast) may be involved in constituting lichen. Toby Spribille et al. (2016). “Basidiomycete yeasts in the cortex of ascomycete macrolichens.” Science 353 (6298): 488–492.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the term “symbiosis”: Jan Sapp (1994). Evolution by Association: A History of Symbiosis (p. 6).
Oxford University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT known as endosymbiosis: Lynn Margulis (1981). Symbiosis in Cell Evolution. W. H. Freeman.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The view of evolution”: Lynn Margulis (1986). Microcosmos: Four Billion Years of Evolution from Our Microbial Ancestors (pp. 28–29). Summit Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT initially scoffed and laughed at: For a sense of the adversity Margulis encountered, see John Feldman (director) (2017). Symbiotic Earth: How Lynn Margulis Rocked the Boat and Started a Scientific Revolution.
Bullfrog Films; Lynn Margulis (1995). “Gaia is a tough bitch.” In John Brockman (ed.), The Third Culture: Beyond the Scientific Revolution (pp.
129–146). Simon & Schuster.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a new term: “involution”: Carla Hustak and Natasha Myers (2012).
“Involutionary momentum: Affective ecologies and the sciences of plant/insect encounters.” Differences 23 (3): 74–118.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “rolling, curling, turning inwards”: Quoted in Hustak and Myers (2012).
“Involutionary momentum” (p. 96).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT We’re enmeshed in a wide: Various scholars have thus proposed other modes of relationality that are nonhierarchical and not arborescent, such as the rhizome formulated by Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari. Gilles Deleuze and Félix Guattari (1987). A Thousand Plateaus (trans. Brian Massumi). University of Minnesota Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “We are human only”: David Abram (1996). The Spell of the Sensuous (p. 22). Vintage Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT bacteria in your gut: Ed Yong (2016). I Contain Multitudes (p. 8).
HarperCollins.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The number in your mouth: Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan (2007).
Dazzle Gradually: Reflections on the Nature of Nature (p. 34). Chelsea Green.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT about three pounds: Rebecca Jacobson (April 23, 2014). “Can we save our body’s ecosystem from extinction?” PBS News.
https://www.pbs.org/newshour/science/theres-extinction-happeningstom ach.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT ability to solve complex memory: Gabrielle L. Davidson, Amy C. Cooke, Crystal N. Johnson, and John L. Quinn (2018). “The gut microbiome as a driver of individual variation in cognition and functional behaviour.” Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 373 (1756).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT interventions that alter: John F. Cryan and Timothy G. Dinan (2012).
“Mind-altering microorganisms: The impact of the gut microbiota on brain and behaviour.” Nature Reviews Neuroscience 13 (10): 701–712.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cows themselves can’t eat grass: I borrow this suggestion from Merlin Sheldrake (2020). Entangled Life (p. 91). Penguin.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT 90 percent of the bacterial species: Yuichi Hongoh (2010). “Diversity and genomes of uncultured microbial symbionts in the termite gut.” Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 74 (6): 1145–1151.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT lineages also disappear: James T.
Staley (1997). “Biodiversity: Are microbial species threatened?” Current Opinion in Biotechnology 8 (3): 340–345.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT we are technological devices: John Gray’s observation was inspired by Lynn Margulis and Dorion Sagan’s writing. John Gray (2002). Straw Dogs (p. 16). Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Most organisms are bacteria”: Myra J. Hird (2010). “Meeting with the microcosmos” (p. 37).
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space 28 (1): 36–39.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “We are all lichens”: Scott F. Gilbert, Jan Sapp, and Alfred I. Tauber (2012). “A symbiotic view of life: We have never been individuals.” Quarterly Review of Biology 87 (4): 325–341.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT titled “The Year 3011”: Dan Piraro (June 28, 2011). “The Year 3011.” BizarroComics.com, distributed by King Features.
https://funnyjunk.com/3011/sdiuLfq/.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Why are humans so successful”: Gary Stix (September 1, 2014). “What makes humans different than any other species?” Scientific American.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/whatmakes-humans-different-t han-any-other-species.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Humans have certainly”: Luiz Villazon. “If the human race was wiped out, which species would dominate?” BBC Science Focus. Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://www.sciencefocus.com/science/if-the-human-race-was-wiped-out -which-species-woulddominate.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT mosses have thrived: Krista Tippet interview with Robin Wall Kimmerer (February 25, 2016). “The intelligence of plants.” On Being with Krista Tippett (podcast).
https://onbeing.org/programs/robin-wall-kimmerer-the-intelligence-of-pla nts-2022.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT as Quentin Atkinson: Quentin D.
Atkinson and Jennifer Jacquet (2022). “Challenging the idea that humans are not designed to solve climate change.” Perspectives on Psychological Science 17 (3): 619–630.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT defy the parameters: For a deeper discussion of this phenomenon, see Yael Wyner and Rob DeSalle (2020). “Distinguishing extinction and natural selection in the Anthropocene: Preventing the panda paradox through practical education measures.” BioEssays 42: 1900206. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT journalist Elizabeth Kolbert: Elizabeth Kolbert (2021). Under a White Sky.
Crown.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Nature is not only”: Frank E. Egler (1970). The Way of Science (p. 21).
Hafner.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT human technology frequently struggles: This idea (along with examples) is carefully explored in Rob Dunn (2021). A Natural History of the Future.
Basic Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT called human exemptionalism: Riley E. Dunlap and William R. Catton (1994). “Toward an ecological sociology: The development, current status, and probable future of environmental sociology.” In William Vincent D’Antonio, Masamichi S. Sasaki, and Yoshio Yonebayashi (eds.), Ecology, Society and the Quality of Social Life (pp. 11–31).
Transaction Publishers.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT our species’ distinct ingenuity: See, for example, John Asafu-Adjaye et al. (2015). “An ecomodernist manifesto.” Accessed September 14, 2024.
http://www.ecomodernism.org/manifesto-english.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT problems growing trees: Anupum Pant. “The role of wind in a tree’s life.” Awesci. Accessed December 16, 2024.
https://awesci.com/the-role-of-wind-in-a-trees-life/#google_vignette [inactive].
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “But man is a part of nature”: Quoted in Linda J. Lear (1997). Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature (p.
450). Henry Holt.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Deborah Bird Rose: Deborah Bird Rose (2006). “What if the angel of history were a dog?” Cultural Studies Review 12 (1): 67–78.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the body below the neck”: Derek Parfit (2012). “We are not human beings.” Philosophy 87 (1): 5– 28.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Melanie Challenger argues that these ambitions: Melanie Challenger (2021). How to Be Animal.
Penguin.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT cultural anthropologist Ernest Becker: Ernest Becker (1973). The Denial of Death. Free Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT need to proclaim that “I am not an animal”: Reviewed in Lori Marino and Michael Mountain (2015). “Denial of death and the relationship between humans and other animals.” Anthrozoös 28 (1): 5–21.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT one 2001 study: Jamie L. Goldenberg et al. (2001). “I am not an animal: Mortality salience, disgust, and the denial of human creatureliness.” Journal of Experimental Psychology 130 (3): 427–435.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT consumer marketing context: Alexander Davidson and Michel Laroche (2018). “Consumer preferences for human uniqueness in marketing communications.” Journal of Marketing Communications 24 (5): 506–517.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Welwitschia mirabilis plant: Ian Sample (May 2, 2010). “The oldest living organisms: Ancient survivors with a fragile future.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/2010/may/02/rachel-sussmanoldest-plants. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Old Tjikko, the nickname given: Patrik Qvist (June 18, 2014). “Deep time: Finding Old Tjikko.” Dark Mountain Project.
https://dark-mountain.net/deep-time-finding-old-tjikko.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Lichens can be: Rachel Sargent Mirus (February 15, 2021). “Lichens: Winter survivalists.” Northern Woodlands.
https://northernwoodlands.org/outside_story/article/lichens-winter.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Wood frogs can remain: “Biological miracle.” National Park Service.
Accessed September 14, 2023.
https://www.nps.gov/gaar/learn/nature/wood-frog-page-2.htm.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT And Turritopsis dohrnii: American Museum of Natural History (May 4, 2015). “The immortal jellyfish.” Accessed September 15, 2023.
https://www.amnh.org/explore/news-blogs/on-exhibitposts/the-immortal-j ellyfish.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “One cannot appropriate”: Tim Ingold (1986). The Appropriation of Nature: Essays on Human Ecology and Social Relations (p. 135).
Manchester University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “because we are part”: Robert Bringhurst and Jan Zwicky (2018).
Learning to Die: Wisdom in the Age of Climate Crisis (p. 13). University of Regina Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter nine: our indigenous inheritance “The essential role”: Jean Clottes (2016). What Is Paleolithic Art? (p.
143). University of Chicago Press.
For more on the marginality of human figures in Paleolithic cave paintings, see Barbara Ehrenreich (December 12, 2019). “ ‘Humans were not centre stage’: How ancient cave art puts us in our place.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2019/dec/12/humans-were-n ot-centre-stage-ancientcave-art-painting-lascaux-chauvet-altamira.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Indigenous knowledge emphasizes “mutual reciprocity”: Gregory Cajete (2000). Native Science (p. 79). Clear Light Publishers.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Everything is related”: Cajete (2000). Native Science (p. 75).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The Western world, long rooted”: George E. Tinker (2004). “The stones shall cry out: Consciousness, rocks, and Indians” (p. 106). Wíčazo Ša Review 19 (2): 105–125.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT bethany ojalehto and colleagues: bethany l. ojalehto, Douglas L. Medin, William S. Horton, Salino G. Garcia, and Estefano G. Kays (2015).
“Seeing cooperation or competition: Ecological interactions in cultural perspectives.” Topics in Cognitive Science 7 (4): 624–645.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the world is inhabited”: Eduardo Viveiros de Castro (1998).
“Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism” (p. 469). Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute 4 (3): 469–488.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Animals are people”: Viveiros de Castro (1998). “Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism” (p. 470).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT what humans see: Viveiros de Castro (1998). “Cosmological deixis and Amerindian perspectivism” (pp.
477–478); The full quote reads: “It could only be this way, since, being people in their own sphere, non-humans see things as ‘people’ do. But the things that they see are different: what to us is blood, is maize beer to the jaguar; what to the souls of the dead is a rotting corpse, to us is soaking manioc; what we see as a muddy waterhole, the tapirs see as a great ceremonial house.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT This is not to impose a “human” quality: To deem this anthropomorphism would be to assume the primacy of the human quality. That is, it is not “anthropomorphic” to compare human and animal in this way, because they share a common existential status, namely as living beings or persons, even if they have different natures. See Tim Ingold (2000).
“Hunting and gathering as ways of perceiving the environment.” In The Perception of the Environment (pp. 40–60). Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “all beings, and not just humans”: Eduardo Kohn (2013). How Forests Think (p. 132). University of California Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT pejorative and racist manner: See Edward B. Tylor (1871). Primitive Culture. Bretano. On p. 417, Tylor asserts, “Animism characterizes tribes very low in the scale of humanity, and thence ascends, deeply modified in its transmission, but from first to last preserving an unbroken continuity, into the midst of high modern culture.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Animists are people who”: Graham Harvey (2005). Animism: Respecting the Living World (p. xi).
Columbia University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The greatest peril”: As recounted by Aua, an Iglulik Inuit shaman, to the Danish ethnographer Knud Rasmussen, whose text is likely the source from which most popular versions of the aphorism derive. Knud Rasmussen (1979). Intellectual Culture of the Iglulik Eskimos: Report of the Fifth Thule Expedition, Vol. 7 (p. 56). AMS Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Colin Scott’s research: Colin Scott (1989). “Knowledge construction among the Cree hunters: Metaphors and literal understanding.” Journal de la Société des Américanistes 75: 193–208. See Alison Leigh Lilly’s blog for additional insights on Cree hunting rituals: Alison Leigh Lilly (January 30, 2014). “Anthropocentrism and animal instinct.” Holy Wild Blog.
https://alisonleighlilly.com/2014/01/30/anthropocentrism-and-animal-insti nct.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “somehow appropriate to a culture”: Robin Wall Kimmerer (2012). “Learning the grammar of animacy” (p. 6). Leopold Outlook (Winter): 1–9.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT roughly 30 percent: Kimmerer (2012). “Learning the grammar of animacy” (p. 6).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Science is a language of distance”: Kimmerer (2012). “Learning the grammar of animacy” (p. 5).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Indigenous African communities knew: See NYU Primatology (@nyuprimatology) tweet (July 14, 2020). “ ‘The Dari is almost human.
This creature grabs an amount of palm nuts in its hand and with a stone of the other hand he breaks them and eats them’ Duarte Pacheco Pereira (1508).” https://twitter.com/nyuprimatology/status/1283060889588031491.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “there is an intricate”: Quoted in Suzanne Simard (2021). Finding the Mother Tree (p. 283). Knopf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Métis scholar Zoe Todd: Zoe Todd (2016). “An indigenous feminist’s take on the ontological turn: ‘Ontology’ is just another word for colonialism.” Journal of Historical Sociology 29 (1): 4–22. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Many posthumanist “realizations”: For other examples, see Juanita Sundberg (2014).
“Decolonizing posthumanist geographies.” Cultural Geographies 21 (1): 33–47.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The moral status of animals is a longstanding”: Christine E. Webb, Peter Woodford, and Elise Huchard (2019). “Animal ethics and behavior science: An overdue discussion?” BioScience 69 (10): 778–788.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Some moderns, both scientists”: Gregory Cajete (2000). Native Science (p. 3). Clear Light Publishers.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Leroy Little Bear: Leroy Little Bear (2000). Foreword to Cajete (2000), Native Science.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Ojibwe scholar Megan Bang: Megan Bang, Ananda Marin, and Douglas Medin (2018). “If Indigenous peoples stand with the sciences, will scientists stand with us?” Daedalus 147 (2): 148–159.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT fifty-four separate sections: Bang, Marin, and Medin (2018). “If Indigenous peoples stand with the sciences” (p. 150).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Two chimpanzee males: Detailed in Jake S. Brooker, Christine E. Webb, and Zanna Clay (2020).
“Fellatio among male sanctuary-living chimpanzees.” Behaviour 158 (1): 77–87.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT in a larger study: Aaron A. Sandel and Rachna B. Reddy (2021).
“Sociosexual behaviour in wild chimpanzees occurs in variable contexts and is frequent between same-sex partners.” Behaviour 158 (3–4): 249–276.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT more than 1,500: José M. Gómez, Adela Gónzalez-Megías, and Miguel Verdú (2023). “The evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in mammals.” Nature Communications 14 (5719).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT alternative hypotheses for how same-sex: Julia D. Monk, Erin Giglio, Ambika Kamath, Max R.
Lambert, and Caitlin E. McDonough (2019). “An alternative hypothesis for the evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in animals.” Nature Ecology and Evolution 3 (12): 1622–1631.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT adaptive role in maintaining: Gómez, Gónzalez-Megías, and Verdú (2023). “The evolution of same-sex sexual behaviour in mammals.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT A 2024 survey: Karyn Anderson et al.
(2024). “Same-sex sexual behaviour among mammals is widely observed, yet seldomly reported: Evidence from an online expert survey.” PLOS ONE 19 (6): e0304885.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT prehistoric humans depicted: Gabor Horvath, Etelka Farkas, Ildiko Boncz, Miklos Blaho, and Gyorgy Kriska (2012). “Cavemen were better at depicting quadruped walking than modern artists: Erroneous walking illustrations in the fine arts from prehistory to today.” PLOS ONE 7 (12): e49786.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “They’ve invented everything”: Quoted in Judith Thurman (June 16, 2008). “First impressions.” New Yorker.
https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2008/06/23/first-impressions.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT animal tracking was the original science: Louis Liebenberg (1990). The Art of Tracking: The Origin of Science. David Philip Publishers.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Tracking involves intense concentration”: Louis Liebenberg (2006).
“Persistence hunting by modern hunter-gatherers” (p. 1024). Current Anthropology 47 (6): 1017–1026.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “must become that animal”: Liebenberg (1990). The Art of Tracking (p.
95).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “perception gained from using”: Cajete (2000). Native Science (p. 2).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The event, titled “Friendship”: Kincentric Leadership (2023). Friendship with the More Than Human World. https://www.kincentricleadership.org/event-info/friendship-with-the-morethanhuman-world.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “intellectual twin to science”: Vine Deloria Jr. (1995). Red Earth, White Lies. Harper and Row. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT does not mean blending: See Leath Tonino (April 2016). “Two ways of knowing.” The Sun.
https://www.thesunmagazine.org/issues/484/two-ways-of-knowing.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “learning to see”: Cheryl Bartlett, Murdena Marshall, and Albert Marshall (2012). “Two-Eyed Seeing and other lessons learned within a co-learning journey of bringing together Indigenous and mainstream knowledges and ways of knowing” (p. 335). Journal of Environmental Studies and Sciences 2 (4): 331–340.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT a team of Western scientists: Aisling Rayne et al. (2020). “Centring Indigenous knowledge systems to re-imagine conservation translocations.” People and Nature 2 (3): 512–526.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Kivalliq Wildlife Board: Crown-Indigenous Relations and Northern Affairs Canada (December 9, 2022). “Kivalliq Wildlife Board uses Inuit knowledge and Western science to study the impact of climate change on food security.” https://www.canada.ca/en/crown-indigenous-relationsnorthern-affairs/ne ws/2022/12/kivalliq-wildlife-board-uses-inuit-knowledge-and-westernscie nce-to-study-the-impact-of-climate-change-on-food-security.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT sustainable agriculture is now aiding: Marcus Vinícius C. Schmidt et al.
(2021). “Indigenous knowledge and forest succession management in the Brazilian Amazon: Contributions to reforestation of degraded areas.” Frontiers in Forests and Global Change 4: 605925.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT by ascribing agency: Thanks to Dr. Roger Dube for this insight.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT significant challenges remain: See, for instance, Jayalaxshmi Mistry and Andrea Berardi (2016). “Bridging Indigenous and scientific knowledge.” Science 352: 26–27; Saima May Sidik et al.
(2022). “Weaving Indigenous knowledge into the scientific method.” Nature 601: 285–287.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT calls this concept Place-Thought: Vanessa Watts (2013). “Indigenous place-thought and agency amongst humans and non-humans (First Woman and Sky Woman go on a European world tour!).” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society 2 (1): 20–34.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Place-Thought is”: Watts (2013).
“Indigenous place-thought and agency amongst humans and nonhumans” (p. 21).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “not of making”: Tim Ingold (2000). The Perception of the Environment (p. 42). Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT attended a lecture: Bathsheba Demuth (November 6, 2019). “Do whales judge us? Interspecies history and ethics.” Harvard University, Environment Forum at the Mahindra Humanities Center.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yh_kJA0Naug.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The Yupik refer to this latter action as angyi: Bathsheba Demuth (October 29, 2019). “Turn and live with animals.” Aeon.
https://aeon.co/essays/the-act-of-giving-and-the-chance-of-life-on-afiniteplanet.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “personhood” is not determined: See Graham Harvey (2017). “If not all stones are alive…: Radical relationality in animism studies.” Journal for the Study of Religion, Nature and Culture 4: 481– 497.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “When an Indigenous”: Watts (2013). “Indigenous place-thought and agency amongst humans and non-humans” (p. 32).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Our understandings of the world”: Watts (2013). “Indigenous place-thought and agency amongst humans and non-humans” (p. 22).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang: Eve Tuck and K. Wayne Yang (2012).
“Decolonization is not a metaphor.” Decolonization: Indigeneity, Education and Society 1 (1): 1–40.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT updated Ecuadorian Constitution: Republic of Ecuador (2008). Constitution of 2008, Chapter 7, Article 71.
Accessed at https://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/Ecuador/english08.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Vilcabamba River’s rights: See Erin Daly (2012). “The Ecuadorian exemplar: The first ever vindications of constitutional rights of nature.” Review of European Community and International Environmental Law 21: 63–66.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “all the rights”: New Zealand Parliamentary Counsel Office. Te Urewera Act 2014, Section 1.3.11.
https://www.legislation.govt.nz/act/public/2014/0051/latest/whole.html#D LM6183705.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Courts in Bolivia, Colombia, and India: Mari Margil (May 23, 2018). “Our laws make slaves of nature. It’s not just humans who need rights.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2018/may/23/laws-slaves-n ature-humans-rightsenvironment-amazon.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT law professor Christopher Stone: Christopher D. Stone (1972). “Should trees have standing?
Towards legal rights for natural objects.” Southern California Law Review 45: 450–501.
https://iseethics.wordpress.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/stone-christ opher-d-should-treeshave-standing.pdf.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a bit unthinkable”: Stone (1972). “Should trees have standing?” (p. 453).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “where ‘recognition’ is”: Glen S. Coulthard (2014). Red Skin, White Masks: Rejecting the Colonial Politics of Recognition (pp. 30–31).
University of Minnesota Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Indigenous peoples manage: Stephen T. Garnett et al. (2018). “A spatial overview of the global importance of Indigenous lands for conservation.” Nature Sustainability 1 (7): 369–374.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Research reveals that annual: Peter Veit and Helen Ding (October 7, 2016). “Protecting Indigenous land rights makes good economic sense.” World Resources Institute.
https://www.wri.org/insights/protecting-indigenous-land-rights-makes-goo d-economic-sense.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT It is estimated: World Bank (April 6, 2023). “Indigenous peoples.” https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/indigenouspeoples.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Notably, biodiversity levels: See, for instance, Richard Schuster, Ryan R.
Germain, Joseph R.
Bennett, Nicholas J. Reo, and Peter Arcese (2019). “Vertebrate biodiversity on indigenousmanaged lands in Australia, Brazil, and Canada equals that in protected areas.” Environmental Science and Policy 101: 1–6.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Spatial analyses indicate: Alejandro Estrada et al. (2022). “Global importance of Indigenous Peoples, their lands, and knowledge systems for saving the world’s primates from extinction.” Science Advances 8: eabn2927.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Indigenous peoples sustain”: Steve Nitah (2021). “Indigenous peoples proven to sustain biodiversity and address climate change: Now it’s time to recognize and support this leadership” (p. 907). One Earth 4: 907–909.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The World Bank estimates: World Bank (April 6, 2023). “Indigenous peoples.” https://www.worldbank.org/en/topic/indigenouspeoples.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Indigenous languages are being lost: Daniel Nettle and Suzanne Romaine (2002). Vanishing Voices.
Oxford University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Studies suggest that similar forces: Larry J. Gorenflo, Suzanne Romaine, Russell A. Mittermeier, and Kristen Walker-Painemilla (2012).
“Co-occurrence of linguistic and biological diversity in biodiversity hotspots and high biodiversity wilderness areas.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 109 (21): 8032–8037. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT the basis of the “overkill hypothesis”: Paul S. Martin (1989). “Prehistoric overkill: A global model.” In Paul S. Martin and Richard G. Klein (eds.), Quaternary Extinctions (pp. 354–404).
University of Arizona Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT these extinctions remain hotly debated: For a sense of the opposition, see David J. Meltzer (2015).
“Pleistocene overkill and North American mammalian extinctions.” Annual Review of Anthropology 44 (1): 33–53.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT article titles claim “Humans Caused”: Geomar (January 24, 2017).
“Humans caused megafauna extinction in Australia.” https://www.geomar.de/news/article?
tx_news_pi1%5baction%5d=detail&tx_news_pi1%5bcontroller%5d=New s&tx_news_pi1%5ba ctbackPid%5d=12123&tx_news_pi1%5bbackPid%5d=12123&tx_news_ pi1%5bnews%5d=4961 .
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Global Late Quaternary”: Christopher Sandom, Søren Faurby, Brody Sandel, and Jens Christian Svenning (2014). “Global late Quaternary megafauna extinctions linked to humans, not climate change.” Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 281: 20133254.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Humans Did Not Drive”: Scott Hocknull et al. (May 19, 2020). “Humans did not drive Australia’s megafauna to extinction—climate change did.” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/may/19/humans-australia-me gafauna-to-extinctionclimate-queensland.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Climate Change, Not Human”: Mathew Stewart, W. Christopher Carleton, and Huw S. Groucutt (2021). “Climate change, not human population growth, correlates with Late Quaternary megafauna declines in North America.” Nature Communications 12 (965).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Anyone apprised of the palaeolithic”: Quoted in Paul Kingsnorth and George Monbiot (August 17, 2009). “Is there any point in fighting to stave off industrial apocalypse?” The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/cif-green/2009/aug/17/envir onment-climatechange. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “40,000 Years of Extinction”: Paul S. Martin (1990). “40,000 years of extinctions on the ‘planet of doom.’ ” Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 82: 187–201. I thank David B.
Lauterwasser’s blog for pointing me to these useful examples: David B.
Lauterwasser (October 20, 2023). “Pleistocene overkill!” An Anamist’s Ramblings.
https://animistsramblings.substack.com/p/pleistocene-overkill.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “fundamentally what man is”: Martin Heidegger (1977). “The age of the world picture” (p. 153).
In William Lovitt (ed.), The Question Concerning Technology, and Other Essays. Harper Torchbooks.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “the younger brothers”: Robin Wall Kimmerer (2013). Braiding Sweetgrass (p. 9). Milkweed Editions.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT if we condense: See Greenpeace (@greenpeace) Tumblr post (August 1, 2024). “The Earth is 4.6 billion years old. Scaling to 46 years, humans have been here 4 hours, the industrial revolution began 1 minute ago, and in that time we’ve destroyed more than half the world’s forests.” https://greenpeaceusa.tumblr.com/post/93508666790/the-earth-is-46-billi on-years-old-scalingto-46.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “already inhabit what our ancestors”: Kyle Powys Whyte (2017). “Our ancestors’ dystopia now: Indigenous conservation and the Anthropocene” (p. 207). In Ursula Heise, Jon Christensen, and Michelle Niemann (eds.), Routledge Companion to the Environmental Humanities. Routledge.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT be found throughout Western history: For overviews, see David Skrbina (2007). Panpsychism in the West. MIT Press; Mary Jane Rubenstein (2018). Pantheologies: Gods, Worlds, Monsters.
Columbia University Press; Wouter J. Hanegraaff (2013). Western Esotericism. Bloomsbury Academic.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “The word ‘animism’ ”: Cajete (2000). Native Science (p. 27).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT relates, is “remember to remember”: Robin Wall Kimmerer. “Returning the gift.” Grateful Living.
Accessed September 14, 2024.
https://grateful.org/resource/returning-the-gift.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT chapter ten: coming down to earth Psychologist Dacher Keltner: See Dacher Keltner (2023). Awe: The Transformative Power of Everyday Wonder. Penguin Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “is experienced as being much larger”: Dacher Keltner and Jonathan Haidt (2003). “Approaching awe, a moral, spiritual, and aesthetic emotion.” Cognition and Emotion 17 (2): 297–314.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “a chaos of delight”: Charles Darwin (1832). Beagle Diary (1831–1836).
Darwin Online. Accessed July 10, 2024.
https://darwinonline.org.uk/converted/manuscripts/Darwin_C_R_Beagle Diary_EHBeagleDiary.html.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT many people consider: See, for instance, Michelle N. Shiota, Dacher Keltner, and Amanda Mossman (2007). “The nature of awe: Elicitors, appraisals, and effects on self-concept.” Cognition and Emotion 21 (5): 944–963.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT include a collective mindset: Yang Bai et al. (2017). “Awe, the diminished self, and collective engagement: Universals and cultural variations in the small self.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 113 (2): 185–209.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT heightened prosocial behavior: Paul K. Piff, Pia Dietze, Matthew Feinberg, Daniel M. Stancato, and Dacher Keltner (2015). “Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 108 (6): 883–899.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT reduction in self-focus: Shiota, Keltner, and Mossman (2007). “The nature of awe.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT researchers call “the small self”: Piff et al. (2015). “Awe, the small self, and prosocial behavior.” GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT awe fosters humility: Jennifer E.
Stellar et al. (2018). “Awe and humility.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 114 (2): 258–269.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Unquestioned beliefs are the real”: Derrick Jensen (2016). The Myth of Human Supremacy (p.
16). Seven Stories Press.
Jensen credits the idea to Robert Combs (1978). Vision of the Voyage (p. 2). Memphis State University Press.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT In “The New Story”: Thomas Berry (2003). “The new story.” In Arthur Fabel and Donald St. John (eds.), Teilhard in the 21st Century: The Emerging Spirit of Earth (pp. 77–88). Orbis Books.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Albert Einstein reputedly: Rockefeller Foundation (October 3, 2014).
“Defining the problem to find the solution.” Insights.
https://www.rockefellerfoundation.org/insights/perspective/definingproble m-find-solution [inactive].
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “Even though this paradigm”: Berry (2003). “The new story” (p. 85).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT The Mother Tree Project: https://mothertreeproject.org.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT I.N.S.E.C.T. Wall Twin: Dan Parker et al. (2023). “I.N.S.E.C.T. Wall Twin: Designing for and with insects, fungi, and humans.” Temes de Disseny 39: 228–247.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “do-nothing farming”: See Masanobu Fukuoka (1985). The Natural Way of Farming. Japan Publications.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “fallen in love outward”: Robinson Jeffers (1988). “The tower beyond tragedy.” In Tim Hunt (ed.), The Collected Poetry of Robinson Jeffers (p.
178). Stanford University Press. I borrow this suggestion from David Abram (1996). The Spell of the Sensuous (p. 271). Vintage Books. GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Philosophers Valerie Tiberius: Valerie Tiberius and John D. Walker (1998). “Arrogance.” American Philosophical Quarterly 35 (4): 379–390.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT “mirror onto the soul”: Tiberius and Walker (1998). “Arrogance” (p. 387).
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT As Abram points out: David Abram (July 22, 2012). “On being human in a more-than-human world.” Center for Humans and Nature.
https://humansandnature.org/to-be-human-david-abram.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT Humility involves holding: Joseph Chancellor and Sonja Lyubomirsky (2013). “Humble beginnings: Current trends, state perspectives, and hallmarks of humility.” Social and Personality Psychology Compass 7 (11): 819–833.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT most understudied virtues: June Price Tangney (2000). “Humility: Theoretical perspectives, empirical findings and directions for future research.” Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology 19 (1): 70–82.
GO TO NOTE REFERENCE IN TEXT