Plurk paste

NOTES
Preface 1. J. Robert Oppenheimer, “Now I am become death. . . ,” Atomic Archive.
2. John Pickrell, “Introduction: The Nuclear Age,” New Scientist, September 4, 2006.
3. Matthew Bunn, “Reducing Nuclear Dangers,” Science 384, no. 6702 (June 20, 2024): 1277.
4. On the reasons for nations to acquire or give up nuclear weapons, see Scott D. Sagan, “Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons? Three Models in Search of a Bomb,” International Security 21, no. 3 (Winter 1996–1997): 54–86; Sagan, “The Causes of Nuclear Weapons Proliferation,” Annual Review of Political Science 14, no. 1 (June 2011): 225–44; Francis J. Gavin, “History and the Unanswered Questions of the Nuclear Age,” in The Age of Hiroshima, ed. Michael G.
Gordin and G. John Ikenberry (Princeton, NJ, 2020), 295–312; Sico van der Meer, “States’ Motivations to Acquire or Forgo Nuclear Weapons: Four Factors of Influence,” Journal of Military and Strategic Studies 17, no.1 (2016); Kenneth Waltz, “The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More May Be Better,” Adelphi Papers, 171 (London, 1981); Jacques E. C.
Hymans, The Psychology of Nuclear Proliferation: Identity, Emotions, and Foreign Policy (Cambridge, UK, 2006).
5. On the category of fear in international relations, see Arash Heydarian Pashakhanlou, Realism and Fear in International Relations: Morgenthau, Waltz and Mearsheimer Reconsidered (Berlin, 2017); Ioannis Evrigenis, Fear of Enemies and Collective Action (Cambridge, UK, 2007); Corey Robin, Fear: The History of a Political Idea (Oxford, 2004). Cf. Serhii Plokhy, Nuclear Folly: A History of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York, 2021). Chapter 1: Prophecy 1. Herbert George Wells, The World Set Free: A Story of Mankind (New York, 1914); W. Warren Wagar, H. G.
Wells: Traversing Time (Middletown, CT, 2004), 54–58, 139–41.
2. Wells, The World Set Free, 34.
3. Wells, The World Set Free, dedication page; Frederick Soddy, The Interpretation of Radium, Being the Substance of Three Popular Experimental Lectures Delivered at the University of Glasgow, 3rd ed., revised and enlarged (New York, 1912), 4, 167.
4. Bruce Cameron Reed, The History and Science of the Manhattan Project (Berlin and Heidelberg, 2014), 26; Richard Reeves, A Force of Nature: The Frontier Genius of Ernest Rutherford (New York and London, 2008), 55–56.
5. Reeves, A Force of Nature, 56–57; Alex Keller, The Infancy of Atomic Physics: Hercules in His Cradle (Oxford, 1983), 98–114.
6. Wells, The World Set Free, 113.
7. Wells, The World Set Free, 117.
8. Wells, The World Set Free, 152.
9. Peter Herrlich, “The responsibility of the scientist. What can history teach us about how scientists should handle research that has the potential to create harm?” EMBO Report 14 (9) (September 2013): 759–64; Igor Novak, Science: A Many-Splendored Thing (Singapore, 2011), 306–16; Margit Szöllösi-Janze, Fritz Haber, 1868–1934: Eine Biographie (Munich, 1998).
10. Derek Hodson, “Victor Grignard (1871–1935),” Chemistry in Britain 23 (February 1987): 141– 42; Oliver Lepick, La Grande Guerre chimique. 1914–1918 (Paris, 1998).
11. “Marie Curie—War Duty (1914–1919), Parts 1–2,” American Institute of Physics; Susan Quinn, Marie Curie: A Life (New York, 1996), 353–75.
12. “To the Civilized World,” The North American Review 210, no. 765 (August 1919): 284–87; Jeffrey Johnson, “Science and Technology,” in International Encyclopedia of the First World War, 1914–1918.
13. “All Nobel Prizes in Physics,” The Nobel Prize; “All Nobel Prizes in Chemistry,” The Nobel Prize.
14. John Campbell, Rutherford: Scientist Supreme (Christchurch, 1999), 361–64.
15. Reeves, A Force of Nature, 92–93.
16. Reeves, A Force of Nature, 102–3.
17. Wells, The World Set Free (1921) (Redditch, Worcestershire, 2016), Preface; Wells, The World Set Free (1914), 40.
18. Gennadi Sardanashvily, “Dmitri Ivanenko (1904–1994). In Honor of the 110th Year Anniversary,” Science Newsletter 1 (2014): 16; Joan Bromberg, “The Impact of the Neutron: Bohr and Heisenberg,” Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 3 (1971): 307–41, here 332.
19. William Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb (New York, 2013), 135–42. Chapter 2: Fright 1. Chuck Rothman, “Albert Einstein and My Grandfather,” Chuck Rothman Google Site, https://sites.google.com/site/chuckrothmansf/einstein; Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 304–5; Ferdinand Kuhn Jr., “Chamberlain Bars Any Coup in Danzig,” New York Times, July 11, 1939, 1.
2. Walter Isaacson, Einstein: His Life and Universe (New York, 2008), 394–447; William Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb (New York, 2013), 204–5.
3. Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 86–89, 204–5.
4. Tom Zoellner, Uranium: War, Energy, and the Rock That Shaped the World (New York, 2010), 1–14, 77–78; Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 205.
5. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 251–53.
6. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 249–62; Ruth Lewin Sime, Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 1997), 184–230.
7. “December 1938: Discovery of Nuclear Fission,” This Month in Physics History, APS News 16, no. 11 (December 2007); Leona Marshall Libby, The Uranium People (New York, 1979), 48– 50.
8. Edward Teller, Memoirs: A Twentieth Century Journey in Science and Politics (New York, 2002), 139–41; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 268–71.
9. Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 205–6; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 280–81, 305.
10. Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 194–95, 204–5; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 291–92, 302–4.
11. Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 205.
12. Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 205–6; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 305.
13. “Papers of Alexander Sachs,” in Franklin D. Roosevelt Presidential Library and Museum; Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 206–7; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 305–6.
14. Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows, 207–9; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 307–8.
15. “Albert Einstein to F. D. Roosevelt,” in The Manhattan Project: The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses and Historians, ed. Cynthia C. Kelly (New York, 2007), 43–44. 16. John U. Bacon, The Great Halifax Explosion: A World War I Story of Treachery, Tragedy, and Extraordinary Heroism (New York, 2017), 181–224.
17. “Albert Einstein to F. D. Roosevelt,” 43–44.
18. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 308; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 20.
19. Henry C. Lee and Frank Tirnady, Blood Evidence: How DNA Is Revolutionizing the Way We Solve Crimes (New York, 2003), 139; World War II Timeline: August 24, 1939–August 31, 1939.
20. Robert Jungk, Brighter than a Thousand Suns: The Story of the Men Who Made the Bomb (New York, 1958), 109–11; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 312–14; DeGroot, The Bomb, 21–23. Chapter 3: Nazis and Their Friends 1. David C. Cassidy, Uncertainty: The Life and Science of Werner Heisenberg (New York, 1993).
2. Philip Ball, Serving the Reich: The Struggle for the Soul of Physics under Hitler (Chicago, 2014); Heinrich Himmler to Werner Heisenberg, July 21, 1938, in Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources, ed. and trans. Klaus Hentschel and Ann M.
Hentschel (Birkhäuser, 1996), 176.
3. Werner Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy [August 16, 1947],” in Physics and National Socialism, 363.
4. “Vision Earth Rocked by Isotope Blast: Scientists Say Bit of Uranium Could Wreck New York,” New York Times, April 30, 1939.
5. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 291–97; Katja Grace, Leó Szilárd and the Danger of Nuclear Weapons: A Case Study in Risk Mitigation (Berkeley, CA, 2015), 5–6.
6. Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy,” 362; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 296; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 15–16, 19.
7. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 311; Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy,” 364; Klaus Hentschel and Ann M. Hentschel, “Introduction,” in Physics and National Socialism, lxxxii. 8. Klaus Hentschel and Ann M. Hentschel, “Introduction,” lxviii; Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy,” 364.
9. Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy and Politics, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA, 2013), 3; Klaus Hentschel, and Ann M. Hentschel, “Introduction,” lxxxii; Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy,” 365–66.
10. Walter E. Grunden, Mark Walker, and Masakatsu Yamazaki, “Wartime Nuclear Weapons Research in Germany and Japan,” Osiris 20, no. 1 (2005): 10–30, here 115–16; “Japanese Atomic Project,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
11. William L. Laurence, “Vast Power Source in Atomic Energy Opened by Science: Report on New Source Power,” New York Times, May 5, 1940, 1, 51.
12. Alan D. Ferguson, “George Vernadsky, 1887–1973,” Russian Review 32, no. 4 (October 1973): 456–58; K. E. Bailes, Science and Russian Culture in an Age of Revolutions: V. I. Vernadsky and His Scientific School, 1863–1945 (Bloomington and Indianapolis, 1990).
13. David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven and London, 1996), 29–34, 59–60; “Zapiska V. I. Vernadskogo i V. G. Khlopina P. I.
Stepanovu,” June 25, 1940, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR, ed. L. D. Riabev et al., vol. 1, pt. 1 (Moscow, 1998), 113–14; “Iz zapiski V. I. Vernadskogo i V. G. Khlopina v prezidium AN SSSR,” July 12, 1940, ibid., 123–24.
14. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 9–28, 34–36; Monis Sominskii, Abram Fedorovich Ioffe (1880–1960) (Moscow and Leningrad, 1964); Zhores Alferov, “Papa Ioffe i ego detskii sad,” in Alferov, Nauka i kul’tura.
Izbrannye lektsii (St. Petersburg, 2009), 127–67.
15. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 41–44; Iu. V. Pavlenko, Iu. N.
Raniuk, and Iu. A. Khramov, “Delo” UFTI, 1935–1938 (Kyiv, 1998); V. V.
Vlasov and V. D. Khodusov, “K 40-letiiu fizikotekhnicheskogo fakul’teta Khar’kovskogo natsional’nogo universiteta imeni V. N. Karazina,” Vestnik Khar’kovskogo natsional’nogo universiteta, Seriia fizicheskaia 114, no. 4 (2002).
16. “Zaiavka na izobretenie V. A. Maslova i V. S. Shpinelia ‘Ob ispol’zovanii urana v kachestve vzryvchatogo i otravliaiushchego veshchestva,’ ” October 17, 1940, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR, vol. 1, pt. 1, 193–95. 17. “Zakliuchenie . . . na zaiavku na izobreteniia sotrudnikov UFTI,” after January 24, 1941, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR, vol. 1, pt. 1, 220–21; “Zakliuchenie . . . na zaiavki sotrudnikov UFTI,” April 17, 1941, ibid., 228–29.
18. Norman Davies, No Simple Victory: World War II in Europe, 1939–1945 (New York, 2007), 94– 98.
19. Heisenberg, “Research in Germany on the Technical Application of Atomic Energy,” 371.
20. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 383–86; Jim Baggott, The First War of Physics: The Secret History of the Atom Bomb, 1939–1949 (New York, 2010), 75–92. Chapter 4: Transatlantic Alliance 1. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, Message to the Congress on the Arming of Merchant Ships, October 9, 1941, in The American Presidency Project; John N.
Petrie, American Neutrality in the 20th Century: The Impossible Dream (Washington, DC, 1995), 79–80.
2. Franklin D. Roosevelt, Day by Day, October 9, 1941, A Project of the Pare Lorentz Center at the FDR Presidential Library; John C. Culver and John Hyde, American Dreamer: A Life of Henry A. Wallace (New York and London, 2000), 266–68.
3. G. Pascal Zachary, Endless Frontier: Vannevar Bush, Engineer of the American Century (New York, 1997), 81–146.
4. “1938, Welles Scares Nation,” This Day In History, History.com.
5. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 338; Zachary, Endless Frontier, 194.
6. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 373–74.
7. Margaret Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945 (London, 1964), 34–36.
8. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945, 36–40; Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M.
Siracusa, A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy and Politics, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA, 2013), 6.
9. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945, 41–42; Gerard J.
DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 24.
10. Otto R. Frisch and Rudolf Peierls, “From Memorandum on the Properties of a Radioactive Super-Bomb,” in The Manhattan Project: The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses and Historians, ed. Cynthia C. Kelly (New York, 2007), 45–48.
11. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945, 45–64.
12. “From Report on the Use of Uranium in a Bomb, Outline of Present Knowledge, MAUD Committee, March 1941,” in The Manhattan Project, 51–55; Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945, 67–68, 76–78.
13. Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945, 80, 91–106.
14. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 374.
15. Samuel K. Allison, “Arthur Holly Compton 1892–1962,” Biographical Memoirs, National Academy of Sciences 38 (1965): 81–110; Martin D.
Saltzman, “James Bryant Conant: The Making of an Iconoclastic Chemist,” Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 28, no. 2 (2003): 84– 94.
16. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 375–76.
17. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 376–77; Frederick Dainton, “George Bogdan Kistiakowsky. 18 November 1900–7 December 1982,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society 31 (1985): 376–408; Susan Eva Heuman, Kistiakovsky: The Struggle for National and Constitutional Rights in the Last Years of Tsarism (Cambridge, MA, 1998).
18. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 377–79.
19. “German Declaration of War with the United States: December 11, 1941,” The Avalon Project.
Lillian Goldman Law Library; “Franklin Delano Roosevelt’s Note to Vannevar Bush, January 19, 1942,” in Manhattan Project. An Interactive History. Chapter 5: Manhattan Project 1. Andrew Brown, The Neutron and the Bomb: A Biography of Sir James Chadwick (New York, 1997), 217.
2. James G. Hershberg, James B. Conant: Harvard to Hiroshima and the Making of the Nuclear Age, vol. 1 (New York, 1993), 160.
3. Hershberg, James B. Conant, 1: 160–61.
4. “Appointment of the Military Policy Committee, September 23, 1942,” The George C. Marshall Foundation, Leslie L. Groves Collection.
5. James Kunetka, The General and the Genius: Groves and Oppenheimer: The Unlikely Partnership That Built the Atom Bomb (Washington, DC, 2015), 25–33; Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 424–25. 6. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 436–42; “Chicago Pile I,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
7. Charles Johnson and Charles Jackson, City Behind a Fence: Oak Ridge, Tennessee, 1942–1946 (Knoxville, TN, 1981), 3–64; Denise Kiernan, The Girls of Atomic City: The Untold Story of the Women Who Helped Win World War II (New York, 2013), 3–34.
8. Vincent C. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb (Washington, DC, 1985), 117– 83; Johnson and Jackson, City Behind a Fence, 65–166; Kiernan, The Girls of Atomic City, 35– 108; “Historical Gold Prices 1833 to Present,” National Mining Association, https://nma.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/historic_gold_prices_1833_ pres.pdf.
9. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb, 108–11, 184–226; Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities, and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 15–74.
10. Leslie R. Groves, Now It Can Be Told (New York, 1962), 38–40.
11. Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York, 2005), 111–65.
12. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 381, 445–48.
13. Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 179–222.
14. In the Matter of J. Robert Oppenheimer. Transcript of Hearing Before Personnel Security Board, United States Atomic Energy Commission (Washington, DC, 2005), 12–13.
15. Glenmore S. Trenear-Harvey, Historical Dictionary of Atomic Espionage (Lanham, MD, 2011), 81.
16. Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 228–29.
17. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb, 506–11.
18. “George Kistiakowsky’s Interview,” January 15, 1982, Voices of the Manhattan Project; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 542–43, 574–78.
19. Jones, Manhattan: The Army and the Atomic Bomb, 507; 610–12, 655. Chapter 6: Unequal Partners 1. Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, ed. Warren F. Kimball (Princeton, NJ, 1984), 1: 249–50.
2. Churchill and Roosevelt: The Complete Correspondence, 1: 279; cf.
Prime Minister Churchill to the President’s Special Assistant (Hopkins), London, February 27, 1943, in Foreign Relations of the United States, Conferences at Washington and Quebec, 1943, no. 4.
3. Andrew Brown, The Neutron and the Bomb: A Biography of Sir James Chadwick (New York, 1997), 224–26.
4. Barton J. Bernstein, “The Uneasy Alliance: Roosevelt, Churchill, and the Atomic Bomb, 1940– 1945,” Western Political Quarterly (University of Utah) 29, no. 2 (June 1976): 202–30, here 206, 208–9.
5. Richard G. Hewlett and Oscar E. Anderson, The New World, 1939–1946 (University Park, PA, 1962), 108.
6. Bernstein, “The Uneasy Alliance,” 209–10.
7. Bernstein, “The Uneasy Alliance,” 211–19.
8. Bernstein, “The Uneasy Alliance,” 220–23.
9. Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York, 2005), 268.
10. Jeffrey Richelson, Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea (New York, 2007), 24–26; Klaus Hentschel, “Introduction,” in Physics and National Socialism: An Anthology of Primary Sources, ed. Klaus Hentschel, trans.
Ann M.
Hentschel (Birkhäuser, 1996), xlviii.
11. Hentschel, “Introduction,” lxxxii.
12. Hentschel, “Introduction,” lxix.
13. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (New York, 1970), 269–72; Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 404–5.
14. Hentschel, “Introduction,” lxviii–lxix.
15. Churchill’s Copy of Hyde Park Aide-Memoire, September 19, 1944, in The Manhattan Project: The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses and Historians, ed.
Cynthia C. Kelly, intro. Richard Rhodes (New York, 2007), 104–5.
16. Thomas Powers, Heisenberg’s War: The Secret History of the German Bomb (New York, 2000), 384–405.
17. Niels Bohr to Winston Churchill, May 22, 1941, in The Manhattan Project, 101–3.
18. Niels Bohr’s Memorandum to President Roosevelt, July 1944, Atomic Archive. 19. Churchill’s Copy of Hyde Park Aide-Memoire, September 19, 1944, in The Manhattan Project, 105.
20. Margaret Gowing, Britain and Atomic Energy 1939–1945 (London, 1964), 358; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 538.
21. Joseph Rotblat, “Leaving the Bomb Project,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 41, no. 7 (August 1985): 16–19.
22. Bird and Sherwin, American Prometheus, 287–89. Chapter 7: American Bomb 1. Herbert George Wells, The World Set Free: A Story of Mankind (New York, 1914), 117; Kevin Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb in War and Cold War (London, 2018), 12.
2. “Albert Einstein to F. D. Roosevelt,” in The Manhattan Project. The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses and Historians, ed. Cynthia C. Kelly (New York, 2007), 43–44.
3. “ ‘From Report on the Use of Uranium in a Bomb, Outline of Present Knowledge,’ MAUD Committee, March 1941,” in The Manhattan Project, 53–54.
4. Don Hornig, interview on “The Story with Dick Gordon,” WUNC, in The Manhattan Project, 298–99.
5. William Lanouette, Genius in the Shadows: A Biography of Leo Szilard, the Man Behind the Bomb (New York, 2013), 275.
6. “Report of the Committee on Political and Social Problems, Manhattan Project ‘Metallurgical Laboratory,’ ” University of Chicago, June 11, 1945, in The Manhattan Project, 288–89.
7. “Science Panel’s Report to the Interim Committee,” June 16, 1945, in The Manhattan Project, 290–91; Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 696–97.
8. The Commanding Officer of the Manhattan Project (Groves) to the Secretary of War (Stimson), Washington, July 18, 1945, in Foreign Relations of the United States. The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference) 1945 (Washington, DC, 1960), 2: 1366–68.
9. Brigadier General Thomas F. Farrell, in The Commanding Officer of the Manhattan Project (Groves) to the Secretary of War (Stimson), Washington, July 18, 1945, 364–66; Thomas O.
Jones, “Eye Witness Accounts of the Trinity test,” Memoranda to Leslie R. Groves, July 23, 1945 and July 30, 1945, in The Manhattan Project, 310.
10. “Szilard Petition,” Atomic Heritage Foundation. 11. Michael Neiberg, Potsdam: The End of World War II and the Remaking of Europe (New York, 2015).
12. Harry S. Truman and the Bomb: A Documentary History, ed. Robert H. Ferrell (Glendo, WY, 1996), 30. Cf. “Hiroshima: Harry Truman’s Diaries and Papers,” www.doug-long.com.
13. Harry S. Truman and the Bomb, 30. Cf. “Hiroshima: Harry Truman’s Diaries and Papers,” www.doug-long.com.
14. S. M. Plokhy, Yalta: The Price of Peace (New York, 2010), 216–28, 285–92.
15. Wilson D. Miscamble, From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War (New York, 2007), 200–202.
16. “Science Panel’s Report to the Interim Committee,” June 16, 1945, in The Manhattan Project, 290–91.
17. Harry S. Truman, Year of Decisions (New York, 1955), 416; Winston Churchill, Triumph and Tragedy: The Second World War (New York, 1986), 381. Cf. “Truman-Stalin Conversation, Tuesday, July 24, 1945, 7:30 P.M.,” in Foreign Relations of the United States. The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference) 1945 (Washington, DC, 1960), 2: 378–79.
18. “Proclamation Defining Terms for Japanese Surrender Issued, at Potsdam,” July 26, 1945, Atomic Archive.
19. Walter E. Grunden, Mark Walker, and Masakatsu Yamazaki, “Wartime Nuclear Weapons Research in Germany and Japan,” Osiris 20, no. 1 (2005): 107–30; “Japanese Atomic Project,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
20. “Press Conference Statement by Prime Minister Suzuki,” July 24, 1945, in Foreign Relations of the United States. The Conference of Berlin (The Potsdam Conference) 1945 (Washington, DC, 1960), 2: 1293. 21. Harry S. Truman and the Bomb: A Documentary History, 31.
22. Emily Strasser, “The weight of a butterfly,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, February 25, 2015.
23. “Notes of Meeting of the Interim Committee, June 1, 1945,” 8–9, 14, The Harry S Truman Library and Museum.
24. Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 710–11; “Hiroshima and Nagasaki Bombing Timeline,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
25. Meilan Solly, “Nine Eyewitness Accounts of the Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki,” Smithsonian Magazine, August 5, 2020. 26. “The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. General Description of Damage Caused by the Atomic Explosions” and “The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Total Casualties,” Atomic Archive.
27. William M. Rigdon, Log of the President’s Trip to the Berlin Conference, July 6, 1945 to August 7, 1945 (Washington, DC, 1945), 49–50.
28. “Truman Statement on Hiroshima,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
29. “The Atomic Bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Total Casualties,” Atomic Archive.
30. Reports of General MacArthur (Washington, DC, 1966), vol. 2, pt. 2, 715–26; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 742–43.
31. Emperor Hirohito, Radio Broadcast, August 14, 1945, in Reports of General MacArthur, vol. 2, pt. 2, 727–28; Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb, 744–46; Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman and the Surrender of Japan (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 215–51; Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, “The Atomic Bombs and the Soviet Invasion: What Drove Japan’s Decision to Surrender?,” Asia Pacific Journal 5, no. 8 (August 2007); Michael Kort, “Racing the Enemy: A Critical Look,” Historically Speaking 7, no. 3 (January/February 2006): 22–24. Chapter 8: Stolen Secret 1. Albert Speer, Inside the Third Reich: Memoirs (New York, 1970), 271; Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 41.
2. V. N. Pavlov, “Avtobiograficheskie zametki,” Novaia i noveishaia istoriia, 2000, no. 4: 94–111, here 109; Michael D. Gordin, “How Much Did Stalin Know?” The History Reader, June 16, 2011; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven and London, 1996), 116–33.
3. Georgii Zhukov, Vospominaniia i razmyshleniia (Moscow, 1971), 685; David Holloway, “Entering the Nuclear Arms Race: The Soviet Decision to Build the Atomic Bomb, 1939–45,” Social Studies of Science, 1981-05-01, vol. 11 (2): 159–97, here 180.
4. “Conversation, August 8, 1945. Present: W. A. Harriman, George F.
Kennan, Generalissimus Stalin, M. V. Molotov, Mr. Pavlov”; William Averell Harriman and Elie Abel, Special Envoy to Churchill and Stalin, 1941–1946 (New York, 1975), 491; Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, Racing the Enemy: Stalin, Truman, and the Surrender of Japan (Cambridge, MA, 2006), 192–94.
5. Simon Sebag Montefiore, Stalin: The Court of the Red Tsar (New York, 2004), 202; Richard Rhodes, The Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York, 2012), 177.
6. “Conversation, August 8, 1945. Present: W. A. Harriman, George F.
Kennan, Generalissimus Stalin, M. V. Molotov, Mr. Pavlov.” 7. Serhii Hrabovs’kyi, “Kharkiv-1940: atomna preliudiia,” Den’, September 2, 2009; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 68–71; L. D. Blokhintsev and A. N.
Grum-Grzhimailo, “Kratkaia biografiia Vladimira Semenovicha Shpinelia,” in Osnovopolozhniki. Oni sozdali nash institut.
NII iadernoi fiziki im. D. B. Skobel’tseva MGU im. M. V. Lomonosova (Moscow, 2016), 15.
8. “Spravka 1-go upravleniia NKVD SSSR o soderzhanii poluchennoi iz Londona agenturnoi informatsii o ‘soveshachanii komiteta po uranu,’ ” Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al.
(Moscow, 1998), vol. 1 (1938–1945), pt. 1, 239–40.
9. Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 78–79; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 85–86; “Rasporiazhenie GKO ‘Ob organizatsii rabot po uranu,’ September 28, 1942, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, vol. 1, pt. 1, 269–71; Campbell Craig and Sergey S. Radchenko, The Atomic Bomb and the Origins of the Cold War (New Haven and London, 2008), 48–49.
10. Holloway, “Entering the Nuclear Arms Race: The Soviet Decision to Build the Atomic Bomb, 1939–45,” 165–70.
11. Brown, Plutopia, 79–80.
12. “Zapiska I. V. Kurchatova, ‘Sostoianie rabot po uranu na 1.VII.1943,” Dokumenty i materialy, vol. 1, pt. 1, 348–54.
13. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 100–115.
14. “Zapiska I. V. Kurchatova L. P. Berii o neudovletvoritel’nom proizvodstvennom sostoianii rabot po probleme,” September 29, 1944, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D.
Riabev et al. (Moscow, 2002), vol. 1, pt. 2, 127.
15. Holloway, “Entering the Nuclear Arms Race: The Soviet Decision to Build the Atomic Bomb, 1939–45,” 183. 16. S. G. Kochariants and N. N. Gorin, Stranitsy istorii iadernogo tsentra Arzamas-16 (Arzamas16, 1993), 13–14; Brown, Plutopia, 83–85.
17. “Postanovlenie GOKO ‘O Spetsial’nom komittete GOKO,’ ” in Atomnyi proekt SSSR.
Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al. (Moscow, 1999), vol. 2 (Atomnaia bomba, 1945– 1954), pt. 1, 11–14; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 129. 18. “Memorandum by the Secretary of War (Stimson) to President Truman,” September 11, 1945, in Foreign Relations of the United States: Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: Political and Economic Matters, vol. 2, no. 13.
19. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 155.
20. John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (New York, 2000), 263–67.
21. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 156.
22. Molotov Remembers: Inside Kremlin Politics, ed. Albert Resis (Chicago, 1993), 58.
23. “28-ia godovshchina Velikoi Oktiabr’skoi sotsialisticheskoi revoliutsii.
Doklad V. M. Molotova na torzhestvennom zasedanii Moskovskogo soveta, 6 noiabria, 1945 g.,” Pravda, November 7, 1945. Chapter 9: United Nations 1. W. H. Laurence, “Nagasaki Flames Rage for Hours,” New York Times, August 10, 1945, 1, 5; David W. Moore, “Majority Supports Use of Atomic Bomb on Japan in WWII. Say bombing saved American lives by shortening the war, but divided on whether it saved Japanese lives,” Gallup, August 5, 2005.
2. “Atomic Culture,” Atomic Age Foundation; “When the Atom Bomb Fell,” performed by Karl and Harty, recorded December 1945, written by Davis and Taylor, WWII in American Music: Axis and Allies.
3. Norman Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” in Cousins, Present Tense: An American Editor’s Odyssey (New York, 1967), 120–30, here 120–21.
4. Allen Pietrobon, “Peacemaker in the Cold War: Norman Cousins and the Making of a Citizen Diplomat in the Atomic Age,” PhD Thesis, American University, Washington, DC, 2016, 14– 35; Cousins, “Modern Man Is Obsolete,” 14–15, 123.
5. Pietrobon, “Peacemaker in the Cold War,” 27–28; Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy, 1957–1985 (New York, 1986), 7. 6. Katz, Ban the Bomb, 2–3.
7. The British Prime Minister (Attlee) to President Truman, October 16, 1945, Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: political and economic matters, 2, 58– 59.
8. Kevin Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb in War and Cold War (London, 2016), 144–47; John Baylis and Kristen Stoddart,The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2014), 19–21.
9. President Harry S. Truman, “Message to Congress on the Atomic Bomb,” Washington, DC, October 3, 1945, Atomic Archive; Harry S.
Truman, Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States: Harry S.
Truman, 1945, 382.
10. Felix Belair Jr., “3 Nations Offer Atomic Bomb to UNO on Reciprocal Basis, Ban on War Is Aim,” New York Times, November 16, 1945, 1; Harry S. Truman, Clement Attlee, and William Lyon Mackenzie King, “Text of the Agreed Declaration on Atomic Energy,” November 15, 1945, in US Senate, Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (Washington, DC, 1946), 33–35, here 33–34.
11. Truman, Attlee, and King, “Text of the Agreed Declaration on Atomic Energy,” 34.
Memorandum by the Director of the Office of Scientific Research and Development (Bush) to the Secretary of State, November 5, 1945.
Subject: Coming conference with Mr. Attlee, in Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: political and economic matters, 2.
12. Wilson D. Miscamble, From Roosevelt to Truman: Potsdam, Hiroshima, and the Cold War (New York, 2007), 268–69; John Lewis Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 1941–1947 (New York, 2000), 277–78.
13. James B. Conant, My Several Lives: Memoirs of a Social Inventor (New York, 1970), 480–81; Record of Conversation, Prepared by the United Kingdom Delegation at the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers, Moscow, December 17, 1945, Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: political and economic matters, 2; United States Delegation Minutes, Sixth Formal Session, Conference of Foreign Ministers, Spiridonovka, Moscow, December 22, 1945, 5:10 p.m., Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: political and economic matters, 2.
14. Record of Conversation, Prepared by the United Kingdom Delegation at the Moscow Conference of Foreign Ministers, Moscow, December 17, 1945.
15. United States Delegation Minutes of an Informal Meeting, Conference of Foreign Ministers, Moscow, Spiridonovka, December 24, 1945, 3:15 p.m., in Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: political and economic matters, 2.
16. George F. Kennan, Memoirs, 1925–1950 (Boston, 1967), 287–88; Miscamble, From Roosevelt to Truman, 270–72; Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 279–81.
17. Miscamble, From Roosevelt to Truman, 273–76.
18. Establishment of a Commission to deal with the problems raised by the discovery of atomic energy. UN General Assembly (1st sess.: 1946), London and Flushing Meadows, NY).
19. Robert L. Beisner, Dean Acheson: A Life in the Cold War (New York, 2006), 33–35; Steven Neuse, David E. Lilienthal: The Journey of an American Liberal (Knoxville, TN, 1996), 167– 77.
20. A Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, March 16, 1946), 21.
21. A Report on the International Control of Atomic Energy, 51–61.
22. Gaddis, The United States and the Origins of the Cold War, 333–34.
23. “The Baruch Plan, presented to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission, June 14, 1946,” in Sokolski, Best of Intentions, 115–22.
24. Sokolski, Best of Intentions, 19–20.
25. Gromyko’s statement in Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 2, nos. 5–6 (September 1946): 11–18; Sokolski, Best of Intentions, 14–24.
26. Acting Secretary of State [Acheson] to Certain Diplomatic Representatives, May 4, 1946, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1946, vol. 6: Eastern Europe, the Soviet Union (Washington, DC, 1969), 751–52; “Operation Crossroads: The Effect of the Atomic Bomb on Naval Power,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 1, no. 5 (February 1946): 1, 11; “Bikini ABomb tests, July 1946,” National Security Archive.
27. “Molotov at the UN, October 29, 1946,” Past Daily; David Holloway, “The Soviet Union and the Baruch Plan,” Wilson Center, History and Public Policy Program, June 11, 2020. Chapter 10: Union Jack 1. The British Prime Minister (Attlee) to President Truman, August 8, 1945, Foreign Relations of the United States, Diplomatic Papers, 1945, General: Political and Economic Matters, 2: 37.
2. “The Atomic Bomb. Memorandum by the Prime Minister,” in Cabinets and the Bomb, ed. Peter Hennessy (Oxford, 2007), 36–38.
3. The British Prime Minister (Attlee) to President Truman, August 8, 1945; Harry S. Truman, Clement Attlee, and William Lyon Mackenzie King, “Text of the Agreed Declaration on Atomic Energy,” November 15, 1945, in US Senate, Atomic Energy Act of 1946 (Washington, DC, 1946), 33–35; Septimus H. Paul, Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Nuclear Relations (Columbus, OH, 2000), 76–77; Margaret Gowing with the assistance of Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence: Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952, vol. 1, Policy Making (London, 1974), Appendix 4, 82–84; John Baylis and Kristan Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2014), 21–22.
4. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 78–82; Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 18–24.
5. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 94–95.
6. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 88–89, 99–101; Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 92–112, 124–30.
7. Graham Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb: A Hidden History of Science, War and Politics (London, 2013), 321.
8. James Gill, Britain and the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy (Stanford, CA, 2014), 11–15.
9. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 163–64, 174.
10. Guy Hartcup and T. E. Allibone, Cockcroft and the Atom (Bristol, 1984), 133–46; Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 161–83.
11. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No.
10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Tuesday, 18th December, 1945, at 10.45 a.m.,” in Cabinets and the Bomb, 40–42.
12. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 165–68, 172.
13. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 39–40, 175–78. 14. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 178–79; David Kynaston, Austerity Britain, 1945–1951 (London, 2008), 93–184; Gill, Britain and the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy, 16–19.
15. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No.
10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Friday, 26th October, 1946, at 2.15 p.m.,” in Cabinets and the Bomb, 44–47.
16. Baylis and Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience, 32; Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 179; “Cabinet. Atomic Energy.
Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at No.
10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Friday, 26th October, 1946, at 2.15 p.m.,” in Cabinets and the Bomb, 45–46.
17. Cabinets and the Bomb, 48.
18. “Memorandum by the Minister of Supply. Note by the Controller of Production of Atomic Energy,” December 31, 1946, in Cabinets and the Bomb, 50–51; ibid., 48.
19. “Research on Atomic Weapons. Note for the Meeting of Ministers,” in Cabinets and the Bomb, 53–54.
20. “Cabinet. Atomic Energy. Note of a Meeting of Ministers held at no.
10 Downing Street, S.W.1., on Wednesday, 8th January, 1947 at 3:00 p.m.,” in Cabinets and the Bomb, 55–56; “Meeting of Ministers.
Confidential Annex, Minute 1 (8th January, 1947—3:00 p.m.). Research in Atomic Weapons,” ibid., 57–58; Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 183.
21. Gill, Britain and the Bomb: Nuclear Diplomacy, 14–15. 22. Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 180–83; Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb, 368.
23. Richard Rhodes, The Making of the Atomic Bomb (New York, 1988), 497–500, 547–48, 557– 60; Gowing and Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 1: 189–93, 241–65; Arnold, Windscale 1957 (London, 2007), 9–11; Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb, 366–75.
24. Arnold, Windscale, 1957, 13–18.
25. Gill, Britain and the Bomb, 13–15; John Baylis and Kristan Stoddart, The British Nuclear Experience: The Roles of Beliefs, Culture and Identity (Oxford, 2014), 30–39.
26. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 158–59; Nancy Greenspan, Atomic Spy: The Dark Lives of Klaus Fuchs (New York, 2020), 175–94. Chapter 11: Stalin’s Bomb 1. “V. N. Merkulov L. P. Berii o napravlenii razvedmaterialov,” August 17, 1945, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR.
Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al. (Moscow, 2002), vol. 1, (1938– 1945), pt. 2, 353; “Spravka I. V. Kurchatova i. K. Kikoina o sostoianii i rezul’tatakh nauchnoissledovatel’skikh rabot,” August 1945, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L.
D. Riabev et al. (Moscow, 2000), vol. 2 (Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954), pt. 2, 307–12; “Tezisy soobshcheniia I. V. Kurchatova na pervom zasedanii Spetsial’nogo komiteta o sostoianii rabot po uranu v SSSR,” August 24, 1945, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L.
D.
Riabev et al. (Moscow, 1999), vol. 2 (Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954), pt.
1, 612–13.
2. Pavel Rubinin, “Svobodnyi chelovek v nesvobodnoi strane,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi akademii nauk 64, no. 6 (1994): 497–510.
3. “Pis’mo P. L. Kapitsy I. V. Stalinu ob organizatsii rabot po probleme atomnoi bomby i svoem osvobozhdenii ot raboty v Spetsial’nom komitete i Tekhnicheskom sovete,” November 25, 1945, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR.
Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al. (Moscow, 1999), vol. 2 (Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954), pt. 1, 613–19; Yu. N Smirnpv, “Stalin i atomanai bomba,” Vestnik instituta istorii estestvoznaniia i tekhniki, no. 2 (1994): 125–30, here 127.
4. Loren R. Graham, “Peter Kapitsa, a Man of Many Parts,” in Graham, Moscow Stories (Bloomington, IN, 2006), 128–38, here 133, 138; P. E.
Rubinin, “Kapitsa, Beriia i bomba,” in Nauka i obshchestvo. Istoriia Sovetskogo atomnogo proekta (40-e-50-e gody) (Moscow, 1999), 2: 260–79.
5. “Zapis’ besedy I. V. Kurchatova s I. V. Stalinym,” in Iu. N. Smirnov, “Stalin i atomnaia bomba,” in Kurchatovskii institut. Istoriia atomnogo proekta (Moscow, 1998), vyp. 13, 146–56, here 153–54.
6. John Lewis Gaddis, George F. Kennan: An American Life (New York, 2011), 201–24.
7. “Zapis’ besedy I. V. Kurchatova s I. V. Stalinym,” 153.
8. “Zapis’ besedy I. V. Kurchatova s I. V. Stalinym,” 153.
9. Mariia Zezina, “Material’noe stimulirovanie nauchnogo truda v SSSR, 1945–1985,” Vestnik Rossiiskoi Akademii nauk 67, no. 1 (1997): 20–27; Sergei I. Zhuk, Soviet Americana: The Cultural History of Russian and Ukrainian Americanists (London and New York, 2018), 38–39. 10. I. A. Andriushin, A. K. Chernyshev, and Iu. A. Iudin, Ukroshchenie iadra. Stranitsy istorii iadernogo oruzhiia i iadernoi infrastruktury SSSR (Sarov, Saransk, 2003), 35–66.
11. “Spravka 1-go upravleniia NKVD SSSR o soderzhanii poluchennoi iz Londona agenturnoi informatsii o ‘soveshchanii komiteta po uranu,’ ” Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al.
(Moscow, 1998), vol. 1 (1938–1945), pt. 1, 239–40; “John Cairncross,” Atomic Heritage Foundation; “Dzhon Kernkross,” Sluzhba vneshnei razvedki Rossii; Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB (New York, 1999), 57–67, 137–44, 154–60.
12. Robert Chadwell Williams, Klaus Fuchs: Atom Spy (Cambridge, MA, 1987); Nancy Thorndike Greenspan, Atomic Spy: The Dark Lives of Klaus Fuchs (New York, 2020).
13. Allen M. Hornblum, The Invisible Harry Gold: The Man Who Gave the Soviets the Atom Bomb (New Haven and London, 2010).
14. Ronald Radosh and Joyce Milton, The Rosenberg File: A Search for the Truth (New York, 1983); Sam Roberts, The Brother: The Untold Story of the Rosenberg Case (New York, 2014).
15. John Earl Haynes, Harvey Klehr, and Alexander Vassiliev, Spies: The Rise and Fall of the KGB in America (New Haven and London, 2009), 110–17; Alan S. Cowell, “Theodore Hall, Prodigy and Atomic Spy, Dies at 74,” New York Times, November 10, 1999.
16. Sharon Weinberger, “Why did the atomic spy do it?” Nature (London), 2020–08, vol. 584 (7819): 34–35. 17. Kate Brown, Plutopia: Nuclear Families, Atomic Cities and the Great Soviet and American Plutonium Disasters (New York, 2013), 97–104.
18. David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven and London, 1996), 180–84; “Dokladnaia zapiska L. P. Beriia, I. V. Kurchatova, B. L.
Vannikova, M. G. Pervukhina na imia I. V. Stalina o puske 25 dekabria 1946 goda opytnogo uran-grafitovogo reaktora,” in Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al. (Moscow, 1999), vol. 2 (Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954), pt. 1, 631–32.
19. Brown, Plutopia, 87–123; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 184–89; “Dokladnaia zapiska I. V. Kurchatova, B. G. Muzrukova, E. P. Slavskogo na imia L P. Beriia ob osushchestvlenii tsepnoi reaktsii v pervom promyshlennom reaktore kombinata no. 817,” June 11, 1948, ibid., 635–36; Anatoli Diakov, “The History of Plutonium Production in Russia,” Science & Global Security 19 (2011): 28–45, 33.
20. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 189–92.
21. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 196–201, 213–19; Andriushin et al., Ukroshchenie iadra.
Stranitsy istorii iadernogo oruzhiia i iadernoi infrastruktury SSSR, 69–78; “Soviet Closed Cities,” Atomic Heritage Foundation; “Arzamas-16. Kak Sarov stal tsentrom Sovetskogo atomnogo proekta,” Argumenty i Fakty, April 1, 2016.
22. “Ispytanie pervoi atomnoi bomby v SSSR,” RIA Novosti, August 29, 2015; Andriushin et al., Ukroshchenie iadra. Stranitsy istorii iadernogo oruzhiia i iadernoi infrastruktury SSSR, 79–81.
23. “Doklad L. P. Beriia i I. V. Kurchatova I. V. Stalinu o predvaritel’nykh dannykh, poluchennykh pri ispytanii atomnoi bomby,” August 30, 1949, in Atomnyi proekt SSSR. Dokumenty i materialy, ed. L. D. Riabev et al.
(Moscow, 1999), vol. 2 (Atomnaia bomba, 1945–1954), pt. 1, 639–43.
Chapter 12: British Hurricane 1. William L. Laurence, “Soviet Achievement Ahead of Predictions by 3 Years: Soviet Achieved the Bomb Quickly,” New York Times, September 24, 1949, 1; Donald P.
Steury, “How the CIA Missed Stalin’s Bomb,” Studies in Intelligence 49 (2005); “Detection of the First Soviet Nuclear Test, September 1949,” National Security Archive.
2. “Truman Statement on Atom,” New York Times, September 24, 1949, 1; “Russian Development of the Atomic Bomb, 1949,” Los Angeles Times, September 24, 1949.
3. John D. Morris, “Atom News Spurs European Arms Aid: Administration to Press Drive for Full $1,314,010,000—Foes Hold Land Force Now Futile,” New York Times, September 25, 1949, 1.
4. “Soobshchenie TASS,” Pravda, September 23, 1949; “Soviet Union Has ‘Atomic Weapon,’ Moscow Says as to U.S. Statement,” New York Times, September 25, 1949, 1.
5. “Announcement by Three Powers,” New York Times, September 24, 1949, 4. 6. Michael S. Goodman, Spying on the Nuclear Bear: Anglo-American Intelligence and the Soviet Bomb (Stanford, CA, 2007), 38–39.
7. Septimus H. Paul, Nuclear Rivals: Anglo-American Atomic Relations, 1941–1952 (Columbus, OH, 2000), 158–59; Cabinets and the Bomb, ed.
Peter Hennessy (Oxford, 2007), 64, 76.
8. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 158–59.
9. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 161–62.
10. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 162–64.
11. Nancy Thorndike Greenspan, Atomic Spy: The Dark Lives of Klaus Fuchs (New York, 2020), 193–270; Christopher Andrew, Defend the Realm: The Authorized History of MI5 (New York, 2010), 387–88; Robert Chadwell Williams, “Who Is Trying to Keep What Secret from Whom and Why? MI5-FBI Relations and the Klaus Fuchs Case,” Journal of Cold War Studies 7, no. 3 (1987): 124–46.
12. Greenspan, Atomic Spy, 306–11; Christopher Andrew and Vasili Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB (New York, 1999), 127–28, 131.
13. Frank Close, Half-Life: The Divided Life of Bruno Pontecorvo, Physicist or Spy (New York, 2015), 147–99.
14. Andrew and Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield, 157–61; Andrew Lownie, Stalin’s Englishman: The Lives of Guy Burgess (London, 2016), 217–56.
15. Paul, Nuclear Rivals, 174–87.
16. “1951: Churchill back in power at last,” Past Elections, BBC News; David Edgerton, Warfare State: Britain, 1920–1970 (New York, 2006), 105; Margaret Gowing and Lorna Arnold, Independence and Deterrence, 2: Policy Execution (Britain and Atomic Energy, 1945–1952) (London, 1974), 56–57; Kevin Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb in War and Cold War (London and New York, 2016), 195.
17. Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 195.
18. Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 197; Graham Farmelo, Churchill’s Bomb: How the United States Overtook Britain in the First Nuclear Arms Race (New York, 2013), 381–83.
19. Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb, 199–205.
20. J. L. Symonds, A History of British Atomic Tests in Australia (Canberra, 1982), 88–108; Lorna Arnold and Mark Smith, Britain, Australia and the Bomb: The Nuclear Tests and Their Aftermath (Basingstoke, 2006), 39–44.
21. Churchill’s statement to Parliament, in “Atom Bomb Test, Australia, Volume 505”: debated on Thursday, October 23, 1952. Chapter 13: Managing Fear 1. Robert North Roberts, Scott John Hammond, and Valerie A. Sulfaro, Presidential Campaigns, Slogans, Issues, and Platforms: The Complete Encyclopedia, vol. 1 (Santa Barbara, CA, 2012), 255; William I. Hitchcock, The Age of Eisenhower: America and the World in the 1950s (New York, 2019), 66–86.
2. David Alan Rosenberg, “The Origins of Overkill: Nuclear Weapons and American Strategy, 1945–1960,” in Steven E. Miller, Strategy and Nuclear Deterrence (Princeton, NJ, 1984), 113– 82, here 137–38.
3. Rosenberg, “The Origins of Overkill,” 136–37.
4. Memorandum of Discussion at a Special Meeting of the National Security Council on Tuesday, March 31, 1953, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, Korea, vol. 15, pt. 1, no.
427.
5. Rosenberg, “The Origins of Overkill,” 136; Michio Kaku and Daniel Axelrod, To Win a Nuclear War: The Pentagon’s Secret War Plans (Boston, 1987), 95–96.
6. Samuel F. Wells, Jr., “The Origins of Massive Retaliation,” Political Science Quarterly 96, no.
1 (Spring 1981): 31–52, here 45–46; Report to the National Security Council by the Executive Secretary (Lay), NSC 162/2, Washington, October 30, 1953, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, National Security Affairs, vol. 2, pt. 1, no. 101.
7. Guy Oaks, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York and Oxford, 1994), 33–39.
8. Oaks, The Imaginary War, 64.
9. Oaks, The Imaginary War, 47–51, 63–71.
10. Duck and Cover (1951), Bert the Turtle, www.youtube.com/watch?v=IKqXu-5jw60; Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 70–75.
11. Report by the Panel of Consultants of the Department of State to the Secretary of State, January 1953, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, National Security Affairs, vol. 2, pt. 2, no. 67; Henry D. Sokolski, Best of Intentions: America’s Campaign against Strategic Weapons Proliferation (Westport, CT, and London, 2001), 26–27.
12. “Project ‘Candor,’ ” July 22, 1953, Eisenhower Presidential Library.
13. Susanna Schrafsetter and Stephen Twigge, Avoiding Armageddon: Europe, the United States, and the Struggle for Nuclear Non-Proliferation, 1945–1970 (Westport, CT, 2004), 53; Ira Chernous, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace (College Station, TX, 2002), 61; Chernous, “Operation Candor: Fear, Faith, and Flexibility,” Diplomatic History 29, no. 5 (November 2005): 779–809; “Memorandum by the President to the Secretary of State, September 8, 1953,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, vol. 2, National Security Affairs, pt. 1 (Washington, DC, 1984), 461.
14. Vladislav Zubok and Konstantin Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 166.
15. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 80.
16. “Atoms for Peace,” New York Times, May 27, 1958, 30; “Address by Mr. Dwight D.
Eisenhower, President of the United States of America, to the 470th Plenary Meeting of the United Nations General Assembly,” Tuesday, December 8, 1953, International Atomic Energy Agency; “Draft of the Presidential Speech before the General Assembly of the United Nations, Draft 5, November 28, 1953, Eisenhower Presidential Library.
17. Sokolski, Best of Intentions, 28–29; Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 79–85; Schrafstetter and Twigge, Avoiding Armageddon, 52–55.
18. Chernous, Eisenhower’s Atoms for Peace, xi–xix, 79–118.
19. Eisenhower, “Annual Message to the Congress on the State of the Union, January 07, 1954.” 20. John Foster Dulles, “The Evolution of Foreign Policy,” Before the Council on Foreign Relations, New York, N.Y., Department of State, Press Release No. 81 (January 12, 1954).
21. Wells, “The Origins of Massive Retaliation,” 41–43; William W.
Kaufmann, “The Requirements of Deterrence,” in US Nuclear Strategy: A Reader, ed. Philip Bobbitt (Houndmills and London, 1989), 169–70; Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement, 1945–1963 (Princeton, NJ, 1999), 185–86.
22. Memorandum of Discussion at the 203rd Meeting of the National Security Council, Wednesday, June 23, 1954, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1952–1954, National Security Affairs, vol. 2, pt. 2, no.
230.
23. “Report of the Committee on Political and Social Problems,” Manhattan Project “Metallurgical Laboratory,” University of Chicago, June 11, 1985, in The Manhattan Project: The Birth of the Atomic Bomb in the Words of Its Creators, Eyewitnesses and Historians, ed. Cynthia C. Kelly (New York, 2007), 288.
24. Robert Norris and Hans M. Kristensen, “Global nuclear weapons inventories, 1945−2010,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 66, no. 4 (July 1, 2010): 77–83. Chapter 14: Super Bomb 1. Ralph E. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon (New York, 1958), 6–26; Matashichi Ōishi, The Day the Sun Rose in the West: Bikini, the Lucky Dragon, and I (Honolulu, 2011), 18–19; Mark Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch,” Japan Times, March 18, 2012.
2. Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, 27–54; James R. Arnold, “Effects of Recent Bomb Tests on Human Beings,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 10, no. 9 (1954): 347–48; “Statement of Lewis Strauss,” March 22, 1955, AEC-FCDA Relationship: Hearings Before the Subcommittee on Security of the Joint Committee on Atomic Energy (Washington, DC, 1955), 6–9.
3. Major General P. W. Clarkson, History of Operation Castle, Pacific Proving Ground Joint Task Force Seven (United States Army, 1954), 121; “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground,” The Nuclear Weapon Archive.
4. Richard Rhodes, Dark Sun: The Making of the Hydrogen Bomb (New York, 1996), 379–80.
5. Rhodes, Dark Sun, 248; Gregg Herken and Richard C. Leone, Cardinal Choices: Presidential Science Advising from the Atomic Bomb to SDI (Stanford, CA, 2000), 34–35.
6. Rhodes, Dark Sun, 207–9; Herken and Leone, Cardinal Choices, 36–38; David Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb: The Soviet Union and Atomic Energy, 1939–1956 (New Haven and London, 1996), 299–300; Gregg Herken, Brotherhood of the Bomb: The Tangled Lives and Loyalties of Robert Oppenheimer, Ernest Lawrence and Edward Teller (New York, 2002), 127.
7. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 301; Herken and Leone, Cardinal Choices, 40. 8. Kai Bird and Martin J. Sherwin, American Prometheus: The Triumph and Tragedy of J. Robert Oppenheimer (New York, 205), 421–23; “The H-Bomb Decision,” GlobalSecurity.org.
9. Lewis Strauss, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission to President Harry S. Truman, November 25, 1949, AtomicArchive.com; John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York, 2005), 61–63.
10. “The President Orders Exploration of a Super Bomb,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (March 1960): 66; Herken and Leone, Cardinal Choices, 35–49; “The H-Bomb Decision,” GlobalSecurity.org; Rhodes, Dark Sun, 382–408; Rhodes, “Stanislaus Ulam’s Interview,” (1983), Voices of the Manhattan Project.
11. “Vita—Excerpts from Adventures of a Mathematician by S. N. Ulam,” Los Alamos Science, 15 (1987): 8–22; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 302–3.
12. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 307–14; Andrei Sakharov, Memoirs (New York, 1990), 101–5.
13. Rhodes, Dark Sun, 484–512.
14. Sakharov, Memoirs, 162–81; Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 303–9; German A. Goncharov, “American and Soviet H-bomb development programmes: historical background,” PhysicsUspekhi 39, no. 10 (1996): 1033–44.
15. “Operation Castle, 1954—Pacific Proving Ground”; Lapp, The Voyage of the Lucky Dragon, 6– 26; Mark Schreiber, “Lucky Dragon’s Lethal Catch,” Japan Times, March 18, 2012.
16. Guy Oaks, The Imaginary War: Civil Defense and American Cold War Culture (New York and Oxford, 1994), 149; Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 96.
17. Holloway, Stalin and the Bomb, 312–17; Sakharov, Memoirs, 188–96.
18. Kevin Ruane, Churchill and the Bomb in War and Cold War (London, 2016), 245–81; Barbara Leaming, Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman (New York, 2006), 235–57; Churchill’s 1955 speech, “The Hydrogen Bomb: Churchill’s last major speech in Parliament, UK Parliament,” 2.
19. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear, 102–3, 111. 20. Ralph E. Lapp, “Civil Defense Faces New Peril,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 9 (November 1954): 349–51; Lapp, “Radioactive Fallout,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, 1 (February 1955): 45–51; Milton S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy (Santa Barbara, CA, 1987), 14–15.
21. “The Russell-Einstein Manifesto, London, 9 July 1955,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
22. Oaks, The Imaginary War, 150–51. Chapter 15: Missile Gap 1.
Eugene Rabinowitch, “The Narrowing Way,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 9, no. 8 (1953): 294–95, 298.
2. Vladislav Zubok and Constantine Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War: From Stalin to Khrushchev (Cambridge, MA, 1996), 163–69.
3. Susanna Schrafstetter and Stephen Twigge, Avoiding Armageddon: Europe, the United States, and the Struggle for Nuclear Non-Proliferation, 1945–1970 (Westport, CT, 2004), 56–57.
4. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, 163–69; Schrafstetter and Twigge, Avoiding Armageddon, 57.
5. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, 163–69, 188–89.
6. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, 1971), 265–362; William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York and London), 208–324.
7. Cited in Taubman, Khrushchev, 351–52; Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 432–34.
8. Taubman, Khrushchev, 351–52; Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, 163–69.
9. “Rocket R-7,” Energia; Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York, 2005), 71.
10. Austin Jersild, “Sharing the Bomb among Friends: The Dilemmas of Sino-Soviet Strategic Cooperation,” Cold War International History Project, Woodrow Wilson Center; Mao cited in Benjamin Shobert, Blaming China: It Might Feel Good But It Won’t Fix America’s Economy (Lincoln, NE, 2018), 35.
11. Sergei Khrushchev, Rozhdenie sverkhderzhavy. Kniga ob ottse (Moscow, 2003), 241; Vladimir Platonov, “R-12. ‘Gadkii utenok’ s beregov Dnepra,” Dzerkalo tyzhnia, June 22, 2007.
12. Christopher A. Preble, “ ‘Who Ever Believed in the ‘Missile Gap?’: John F. Kennedy and the Politics of National Security,” Presidential Studies Quarterly 33, no. 4 (December 2003): 801– 26; W. J.
Rorabaugh, The Real Making of the President: Kennedy, Nixon, and the 1960 Election (Lawrence, KS, 2009); Gary Donaldson, The First Modern Campaign: Kennedy, Nixon, and the Election of 1960 (Lanham, MD, 2007), 127–48; Barbara Leaming, Jack Kennedy: The Education of a Statesman (New York, 2006), 230.
13. Donaldson, The First Modern Campaign, 61–126; “Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy in the United States Senate, National Defense, Monday, February 29, 1960,” Archives, John F.
Kennedy Presidential Library and Archive.
14. Spencer R. Weart, The Rise of Nuclear Fear (Cambridge, MA, 2012), 124; Nevil Shute, On the Beach (New York, 1957).
15. Nelson W. Polsby, Political Innovation in America: The Politics of Policy Initiation (New Haven and London, 1984), 57–58; Richard Dean Burns and Joseph Siracusa, A Global History of the Nuclear Arms Race: Weapons, Strategy, and Politics, 2 vols. (Santa Barbara, CA, 2013), 1: 236–37, 247–48; Glenn T. Seaborg with the assistance of Benjamin S.
Loeb, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1981), 8.
16. Polsby, Political Innovation in America, 59; Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 255; Allen Pietrobon, “Peacemaker in the Cold War: Norman Cousins and the Making of the Citizen Diplomat in the Atomic Age,” PhD diss., American University, 2016, 99– 199, 201; Martin S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for Sane Nuclear Policy (Westport, CT, 1987), 15–16.
17. Katz, Ban the Bomb, 17–25.
18. Russell Baker, “Eisenhower Bars ‘Total’ Outlawing of Nuclear Tests,” New York Times, June 6, 1957, 1, 15.
19. Katherine Magraw, “Teller and the ‘Clean Bomb’ Episode,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (May 1988): 32–37, here 32–34; Pietrobon, “Peacemaker in the Cold War,” 210–11. 20. Frederick Kempe, Berlin 1961: Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Most Dangerous Place on Earth (New York, 2011), 29–30.
21. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, 200–201; “Khrushchev Arrives in Washington,” This Day in History, September 15, 1959; “Khrushchev Ends Trip to the United States,” This Day in History, September 27, 1959. 22. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, One Hell of a Gamble: Khrushchev, Castro, and Kennedy, 1958–1964: The Secret History of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York, 1997), 80.
23. Dino A. Brugioni and Doris G. Taylor, Eyes in the Sky: Eisenhower, the CIA, and Cold War Aerial Espionage (Annapolis, MD, 2010), 343–46.
24. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, 189; Michael Beschloss, Mayday: Eisenhower, Khrushchev, and the U-2 Affair (New York, 1986); Bruce Geelhoed and Anthony O. Edmond, Eisenhower, Macmillan, and Allied Unity, 1957–1961 (New York, 2003), 101.
25. “Remarks of Senator John F. Kennedy in the Senate, Washington, DC, June 14, 1960,” Archives, John F. Kennedy Presidential Library and Archive.
26. Zubok and Pleshakov, Inside the Kremlin’s Cold War, 202–5.
Chapter 16: Bombe Atomique 1. William Burr, “The U.S. Nuclear Presence in Western Europe, 1954–1962, Part I,” National Security Archive.
2. Henry D. Sokolski, Best of Intentions: America’s Campaign against Strategic Weapons Proliferation (Westport, CT, and London, 2001), 40–41.
3. “Nuclear Threats. Second Berlin Crisis, 1960,” GlobalSecurity.org; Benjamin Varat, “Point of Departure: A Reassessment of Charles de Gaulle and the Paris Summit of May 1960,” Diplomacy & Statecraft 19, no. 1 (2008): 96–124.
4. “Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900–1958),” Atomic Archive.
5. Wilfred L. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ, 2015), 16–17; Vincent Bugeja, “Joliot-Curie Rips America for Atomic Energy Report,” New York Herald Tribune, European edition, June 15, 1947.
6. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 16.
7. “Frédéric Joliot-Curie (1900–1958),” Atomic Archive; “France’s Nuclear Weapons. Origin of the Force de Frappe,” Nuclear Weapons Archive.
8. Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York, 2009), 133–34; Wolf Mendl, “The Background of French Nuclear Policy,” International Affairs 41, no. 1 (January 1965): 22–36, here 27–28.
9. Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 145–46. 10. Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 138–39; “Marcoule: G1, G2 and G3 reactors for plutonium production,” fissilematerials.org.
11. Derek Varble, The Suez Crisis, 1956 (Oxford, 2003), 28–90; Odd Arne Westad, The Cold War: A World History (New York, 2017), 272–75.
12. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 18–22, 29–31, 35–36.
13. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 26–29; Bruno Barrillot, “French Nuclear Tests in the Sahara: Open the Files,” Science for Democratic Action, Institute for Energy and Environmental Research, April 2008.
14. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 26–29; Barrillot, “French Nuclear Tests in the Sahara.” 15. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 88–90.
16. “Memorandum of Conversation, Paris, July 5, 1958. The Secretary’s talks with General de Gaulle in Paris, July 5, 1958,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, Western Europe, vol. 7, pt. 2, no. 34.
17. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 62–64; Jean-Marc Regnault, “France’s Search for Nuclear Test Sites, 1957–1963,” Journal of Military History 67, no. 4 (2003): 1223–48, here 1227; Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, A Global History of the Nuclear Race: Weapons, Strategy and Politics (Santa Barbara, CA, 2013), 2: 330–31.
18. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 91–93, 106–7; Varat, “Point of Departure,” 99.
19. “Discontinuance of Nuclear Tests,” United States Congress. The Congressional Record: Proceedings and Debates of the 86th Congress, Second Session, vol. 106, pt. 2 (January 27– February 16, 1960), 2079; Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 145–46.
20. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy, 6–7; Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 147; Burns and Siracusa, A Global History of the Nuclear Race, 2: 328–29.
21. Barrillot, “French Nuclear Tests in the Sahara”; Jean Lacouture, De Gaulle, the Ruler, 1945– 1970 (New York, 1993), 423. Chapter 17: China Syndrome 1. “V Sovete ministrov SSSR,” Pravda, January 18, 1955.
2. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York, 2005), 48–50, 58–60; Carl A.
Posey, “How the Korean War Almost Went Nuclear,” Air & Space Magazine, July 2015.
3. John Wilson Lewis and Litai Xue, China Builds the Bomb (Stanford, CA, 1991), 13–14.
4. Lewis and Xue, China Builds the Bomb, 12; Victor Gobarev, “Soviet Policy toward China: Developing Nuclear Weapons, 1949–1969,” Journal of Slavic Military History 12, no. 4 (December 1999): 1–53, here pp. 3–4.
5. Gobarev, “Soviet Policy toward China,” 10–11.
6. Henrietta Harrison, “Popular Responses to the Atomic Bomb in China 1945–1955,” Past & Present 218 (suppl. 8): 98–116, here pp. 106–7.
7. Lewis and Xue, China Builds the Bomb, 22–29, 32–35; Austin Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance: An International History (Chapel Hill, NC, 2016), 145; H. W. Brands, “Testing Massive Retaliation: Credibility and Crisis Management in the Taiwan Strait,” International Security 12, no. 4 (1988): 124–51; Gordon H. Chang, “To the Nuclear Brink: Eisenhower, Dulles, and the Quemoy-Matsu Crisis,” International Security 12, no. 4 (1988): 96–123.
8. Lewis and Xue, China Builds the Bomb, 36–46.
9. “Address by Zhou Enlai at the Plenary Session of the Fourth Meeting of the State Council (Excerpt),” January 31, 1955, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Dang de wenxian (Party Historical Documents), no. 3 (1994): 16–19, trans. Neil Silver.
10. “Mao Zedong, ‘The Chinese People Cannot Be Cowed by the Atom Bomb,’ ” January 28, 1955, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Selected Works of Mao Tse-Tung, vol. 5, 152–53; “At the Plenary Session of the Fourth Meeting of the State Council (Excerpt),” January 31, 1955, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Dang de wenxian (Party Historical Documents), no. 3 (1994): 16–19, trans. Neil Silver.
11. “Address by Zhou Enlai.” 12. “Talk by Mao Zedong at an Enlarged Meeting of the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee Politburo (Excerpts),” April 25, 1956, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Mao Zedong wenji (Selected Writings of Mao Zedong), vol. 7 (Beijing: Renmin chubanshe, 1999), 27, trans. Neil Silver.
13. Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance, 146–47; Lorenz Lüthi, The Sino-Soviet Split: Cold War in the Communist World (Princeton, NJ, 2008), 1–17; Sergey Radchenko, Two Suns in the Heavens: The Sino-Soviet Struggle for Supremacy, 1962–1967 (Washington, DC, and Stanford, CA, 2009), 1–22; Jersild, “Sharing the Bomb among Friends: The Dilemmas of Sino-Soviet Strategic Cooperation,” Cold War International History Project, Nuclear Proliferation International History Project; “Request by the Chinese Leadership to the Soviet Leadership for Help in Establishing a Chinese Nuclear Program,” January 15, 1956, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, TsKhSD (Center for the Storage of Contemporary Documentation), f.
5, op. 30, d. 164, ll. 7a, 48–9. Obtained by Tatiana Zazerskaia and translated by David Wolff.
14. Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance, 146; Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, trans. Strobe Talbott (Boston, 1971), 517–37.
15. “Excerpt from the Unedited Translation of Mao Zedong’s Speech at the Moscow Conference of Communist and Workers’ Parties,” November 18, 1957, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, RGANI: fond 10, opis' 1, delo 32, listy 1-91. Reproduced in Nasledniki Kominterna: Mezhdunarodnye soveshchaniia predstavitelei kommunisticheskikh i rabochikh partii v Moskve, ed. N. G. Tomilina (Moscow, 2013), trans. Sergey Radchenko. [Translation edited for style.] 16. Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers, 519–20; Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance, 147; “Letter from the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Central Committee to the Chinese Communist Party Central Committee on the Temporary Halt in Nuclear Assistance,” June 20, 1959, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, PRC FMA 109-02563-01, 1–3, trans. Neil Silver.
17. Jersild, The Sino-Soviet Alliance, 147; William Burr and Jeffrey T.
Richelson, “Whether to ‘Strangle the Baby in the Cradle’: The United States and the Chinese Nuclear Program, 1960– 64,” International Security 25, no. 3 (Winter 2000/01): 54–99, here 57–59; Odd Arne Westad, Brothers in Arms: The Rise and Fall of the Sino-Soviet Alliance, 1945–63 (Stanford, CA, 1998), 157–59, 206–7; Victor Gobarev, “Soviet Policy toward China: Developing Nuclear Weapons, 1949–1969,” Journal of Slavic Military History 12, no. 4 (December 1999), 17–31.
18. “Mao Zedong’s Talk at the Beidaihe Central Committee Work Conference (Excerpt),” July 18, 1960, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Jiangguo yilai Mao Zedong junshi wengao (Mao Zedong’s Manuscripts on Military Affairs since the Founding of the PRC), vol. 3 (Beijing, 2010), 100, trans. Neil Silver; Burr and Richelson, “Whether to ‘Strangle the Baby in the Cradle,’ ” 58; Lewis and Xue, China Builds the Bomb, 177–78.
19. “Zhou Enlai’s Discussion with a Kenyan African National Federation Delegation (Excerpt),” September 5, 1963, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Dang de wenxian (Party Historical Documents), no. 3 (1994): 15–16, trans. Neil Silver.
20. “JFK on Nuclear Weapons and Non-Proliferation,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, November 17, 2003.
21. Burr and Richelson, “Whether to ‘Strangle the Baby in the Cradle,’ ” 60–63.
22. Wilfred L. Kohl, French Nuclear Diplomacy (Princeton, NJ, 2015), 130. Chapter 18: Cuban Gamble 1. “JFK on Nuclear Weapons and Non-Proliferation,” Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, November 17, 2003.
2. Memorandum of Conversation, Vienna, June 4, 1961, in FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. 5: Soviet Union, no. 87; Richard Reeves, President Kennedy: Profile in Power (New York, 1993), 175; Michael Dobbs, One Minute to Midnight: Kennedy, Khrushchev and Castro on the Brink of Nuclear War (New York, 2008), 229.
3. “Radio and Television Report to the American People on the Berlin Crisis, July 25, 1961,” JFK Presidential Library and Museum.
4. Aviva Chomsky, A History of the Cuban Revolution (UK, 2015), 28–44; Jim Rasenberger, The Brilliant Disaster: JFK, Castro, and America’s Doomed Invasion of Cuba’s Bay of Pigs (New York, 2011).
5. Aleksandr Fursenko and Timothy Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble”: Khrushchev, Castro and Kennedy, 1958–1964 (New York and London, 1997), 158–65; Serhii Plokhy, Nuclear Folly: A History of the Cuban Missile Crisis (New York, 2021), 37–57.
6. Fursenko and Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble,” 166–97, 158–72; Plokhy, Nuclear Folly, 58–96.
7. The Kennedy Tapes: Inside the White House during the Cuban Missile Crisis, ed. Ernest R.
May and Philip D. Zelikow, concise ed. (New York and London, 2002), 3–137; Plokhy, Nuclear Folly, 132–57.
8. “Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Presidium Protocol 60,” October 23, 1962; cf. Prezidium TsK KPSS, 1954–1964, ed. Aleksandr Fursenko (Moscow, 2003), vol. 1, protocol no.
60, 617; Anastas Mikoian, “Diktovka o poezdke na Kubu,” January 19, 1963, in Aleksandr Lukashin and Mariia Aleksashina, “My voobshche ne khotim nikuda brosat' rakety, my za mir,” Rodina, January 1, 2017; Sergo Mikoyan, The Soviet Cuban Missile Crisis: Castro, Mikoyan, Kennedy, Khrushchev, and the Missiles of November (Stanford, CA, 2014), 148, 157.
9. “Radio and Television Report to the American People on the Berlin Crisis, July 25, 1961,” JFK Presidential Library and Museum; “Letter from President Kennedy to Chairman Khrushchev,” October 22, 1962, in FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 60; “Telegram from the Embassy in the Soviet Union to the Department of State,” Moscow, October 23, 1962, 5 p.m., FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 61.
10. “Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Presidium Protocol 60,” October 23, 1962.
11. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (1962–1986) (New York, 1995), 82–83.
12. Robert F. Kennedy, Thirteen Days: A Memoir of the Cuban Missile Crisis, with a new foreword by Arthur Schlesinger Jr. (New York, 1999), 53–54.
13. Executive Committee Meeting of the National Security Council, Wednesday, October 24, 1962, 10:00 a.m.; The Kennedy Tapes, 231–33.
14. G. M. Kornienko, Kholodnaia voina. Svidetel’stvo ee uchastnika (Moscow, 2001), 124; Dobrynin, In Confidence, 83, 129; Scott D. Sagan, The Limits of Safety: Organizations, Accidents, and Nuclear Weapons (Princeton, NJ, 1993), 68–69.
15. “Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Presidium Protocol 61,” October 25, 1962, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, RGANI, f. 3, op. 16, d.
947, l. 42-42 ob., trans. and ed. Mark Kramer, with assistance from Timothy Naftali.
16. The Diary of Anatoly S. Chernyaev, 1976, trans. Anna Melyakova, 2, National Security Archive. 17. “Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union Presidium Protocol 62,” October 27, 1962, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, RGANI, f. 3, op. 16, d.
947, l. 43–44, trans. and ed. Mark Kramer, with assistance from Timothy Naftali; Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, Moscow, October 27, 1962, FRUS, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 66. 18. Plokhy, Nuclear Folly, 234–45.
19. Dobbs, One Minute to Midnight, 297–334; Plokhy, Nuclear Folly, 257–88.
20. “Poslanie Pervogo sekretaria TsK KPSS Nikity Sergeevicha Khrushcheva, prezidentu Soedinennykh Shtatov Ameriki, Dzhonu F.
Kennedi,” Pravda, October 29, 1962, 1; cf. “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy,” Moscow, October 28, 1962, FRUS, 1961– 1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 68.
21. Fursenko and Naftali, “One Hell of a Gamble,” 290–318; Mikoyan, The Soviet Cuban Missile Crisis, 195–234; Plokhy, Nuclear Folly, 319–35. Chapter 19: Banning the Bomb 1. “Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in the Soviet Union,” Washington, October 28, 1962, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 6, KennedyKhrushchev Exchanges, no. 69.
2. Glenn T. Seaborg with Benjamin S. Loeb, foreword by W. Averell Harriman, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban (Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London, 1981), 21–66.
3. Nikita Khrushchev, Khrushchev Remembers (Boston, 1971), 536.
4. “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy,” Moscow, October 30, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 71.
5. “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy,” Moscow, October 30, 1962.
6. “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy,” Moscow, December 19, 1962, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 85.
7. “Message from President Kennedy to Chairman Khrushchev,” Washington, December 28, 1962, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 87; “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy,” Moscow, January 7, 1963, ibid., no. 92; Vojtech Mastny, “The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty: A Missed Opportunity for Détente?” Journal of Cold War Studies 10, no. 1 (2008): 3–25, here 8–9; Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban, 181–85.
8. Norman Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate: John F. Kennedy, Pope John, Nikita Khrushchev (New York, 1972), 47–51; Allen Pietrobon, “Peacemaker in the Cold War: Norman Cousins and the Making of the Citizen Diplomat in the Atomic Age,” PhD diss., American University, 2016, 326–27.
9. Mastny, “The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,” 12.
10. William Krasner, “Baby Tooth Survey—First Results,” Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 55, no. 2 (2013): 18–24; “St. Louis Baby Tooth Survey, 1959–1970,” Washington University School of Dental Medicine.
11. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 85–86; Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban, 191, 209–10.
12. Mastny, “The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,” 14–15.
13. “Telegram from the Department of State to the Embassy in the Soviet Union,” Washington, May 30, 1963, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 105; “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy,” Moscow, June 8, 1963, ibid., no. 106; Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban, 199.
14. John F. Kennedy, “Commencement Address at American University,” Washington, DC, June 10, 1963, John F. Kennedy Library and Archive; Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 122–26.
15. “Rech tovarishcha N. S. Khrushcheva na mitinge v Berline 2 iiulia 1963 goda,” Pravda, July 3, 1963, 1–2; Mastny, “The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,” 17–18.
16. Mastny, “The 1963 Nuclear Test Ban Treaty,” 19–21.
17. Cousins, The Improbable Triumvirate, 127–48; Martin S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for Sane Nuclear Policy (Westport, CT, 1987), 84–67; Dennis Hevesi, “Dr. Louise Reiss, Who Helped Ban Atomic Testing, Dies at 90,” New York Times, January 10, 2011.
18. “Letter from President Kennedy to Chairman Khrushchev,” Washington, December 14, 1962, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 6, Kennedy-Khrushchev Exchanges, no. 84; “Letter from Chairman Khrushchev to President Kennedy, Moscow, December 19, 1962,” ibid., no. 85. 19. Seaborg, Kennedy, Khrushchev and the Test Ban, 23, 181–82; Jeffrey T. Richelson and William Burr, “Whether to ‘Strangle the Baby in the Cradle’: The United States and the Chinese Nuclear Program, 1960–64,” International Security 25, no. 3 (2000): 54–99, here 67–72. 20. Burr and Richelson, “Whether to ‘Strangle the Baby in the Cradle,’ ” 72–73.
21. Burr and Richelson, “Whether to ‘Strangle the Baby in the Cradle,’ ” 86–96.
22. William Taubman, Khrushchev: The Man and His Era (New York, 2003), 614–22.
23. “Statement of the Government of the People’s Republic of China,” October 16, 1964, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, PRC FMA 105-01262-01, 22–26. Obtained by Nicola Leveringhaus.
24. “Statement of the Government of the People’s Republic of China,” October 16, 1964.
25. Michael S. Gerson, The Sino-Soviet Border Conflict: Deterrence, Escalation, and the Threat of Nuclear War in 1969, Defense Threat Reduction Agency Advanced Systems and Concepts Office (2010), 46–52; Yang Kuisong, “The Sino-Soviet Border Clash of 1969: From Zhenbao Island to Sino-American Rapprochement,” Cold War History 1 (2000): 21–52; David Reynolds, Summits: Six Meetings that Shaped the Twentieth Century (New York, 2007), 226.
26. Henry D. Sokolski, Best of Intentions: America’s Campaign against Strategic Weapons Proliferation (Westport, CT, and London, 2001), 41–45.
27. Sokolski, Best of Intentions, 46–52.
28. Joseph Cirincione, Bomb Scare: The History and Future of Nuclear Weapons (New York, 2007), 29–31; Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons, International Atomic Energy Agency, Information Circular, April 22, 1970.
29. Cirincione, Bomb Scare, 32–34; David Fischer, History of the International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna, 1997), 27–70. Chapter 20: Star of David 1. Benny Morris, 1948: The First Arab-Israeli War (New Haven, 2008).
2. Avner Cohen, Israel and the Bomb (New York, 1998), 10–12, 66.
3. Avner Cohen, “Before the Beginning: The Early History of Israel’s Nuclear Project (1948– 1954),” Israel Studies 3, no. 1 (1998): 112–39; Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 55; Stephanie Cooke, In Mortal Hands: A Cautionary History of the Nuclear Age (New York, 2009), 150–54.
4. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 53–54; S. Ilan Troen,“The Protocol of Sèvres: British/French/Israeli Collusion against Egypt, 1956,” Israel Studies 1, no. 2 (Fall 1996): 124– 39; Avi Shlaim, “The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956: Anatomy of a War Plot,” International Affairs 73, no. 3 (1997): 509–30.
5. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 56–65, 70–73; Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 148–50; Memorandum of Conversation, August 6, 1959, between Gunnar Randers and Richard J. Kerry, National Security Archive.
6. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 66–68, 75–78; Cooke, In Mortal Hands, 152–53; Peter Pry, Israel’s Nuclear Arsenal (London and New York, 1984), 12.
7. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 73–76; Julian Schofield, Strategic Nuclear Sharing (New York, 2014), 50–58; Avner Cohen and William Burr, “Israel’s Quest for Yellowcake: The Secret Argentina-Israel Connection, 1963–1966,” Wilson Center.
8. Memorandum of Conversation. US Secretary of State Christian Herter and UK Ambassador to the US Sir Harold Caccia, Subject: Safeguards for Reactors, November 25, 1960, National Security Archive; Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 81–87.
9. “Memorandum of Discussion at the 470th Meeting of the National Security Council,” December 8, 1960, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1958–1960, vol. 13, Arab-Israeli Dispute; United Arab Republic; North Africa, no. 177; Avner Cohen and William Burr, “The Eisenhower Administration and the Discovery of Dimona: March 1958–January 1961,” National Security Archive.
10. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 88.
11. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 88–93; Cohen and Burr, “The Eisenhower Administration and the Discovery of Dimona.” 12. Special National Intelligence Estimate: Implication of the Acquisition by Israel of a Nuclear Weapons Capability, December 8, 1960, National Security Archive; Avner Cohen and William Burr, “Kennedy, Dimona and the Nuclear Proliferation Problem: 1961–1962,” National Security Archive.
13. Cohen and Burr, “Kennedy, Dimona and the Nuclear Proliferation Problem: 1961–1962”; “Memorandum of Conversation, President Kennedy and Prime Minister Ben Gurion,” New York, May 30, 1961, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 17, Near East, 1961–1962, no. 57.
14. Cohen and Burr, “Kennedy, Dimona and the Nuclear Proliferation Problem: 1961–1962”; National Intelligence Estimate: Outlook for Israel, October 5, 1961, National Security Archive; Howard Furnas, Office of Special Assistant to Secretary of State for Atomic Energy and Outer Space, to Dwight Ink, Atomic Energy Commission, November 15, 1961, National Security Archive.
15. “Circular Airgram from the Department of State to Certain Posts, Washington, October 31, 1962, Subject: Israel’s Dimona Reactor,” in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1961–1963, vol. 18, Near East, 1962–1963, no. 87; Cohen and Burr, “Kennedy, Dimona and the Nuclear Proliferation Problem: 1961–1962”; Pry, Israel’s Nuclear Arsenal, 7–9.
16. Avner Cohen and William Burr, “The Battle of the Letters, 1963: John F. Kennedy, David BenGurion, Levi Eshkol, and the U.S. Inspections of Dimona,” National Security Archive; “State Department Telegram 938 to U.S. Embassy Israel,” June 15, 1963, National Security Archive.
17. Cohen and Burr, “The Battle of the Letters, 1963”; “State Department Telegram 193 to U.S.
Embassy Israel,” July 4, 1963, National Security Archive.
18. U.S. Inspection Team Visit to Israeli Atomic Energy Installation, January 16–20, 1964, 1–2, National Security Archive; “Israel’s Nuclear Weapon Capability: An Overview,” Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control, The Risk Report 2, no. 4 (July-August 1996).
19. Cohen, Israel and the Bomb, 237; Richard Dean Burns and Joseph M. Siracusa, A Global History of the Nuclear Race: Weapons, Strategy and Politics (Santa Barbara, CA, 2013), 2: 348–49.
20. Pry, Israel’s Nuclear Arsenal, 31–32.
21. Seymour M. Hersh, The Samson Option: Israel’s Nuclear Arsenal and American Foreign Policy (New York, 1991), 217, 222–29; Richard Sale, “Yom Kippur: Israel’s 1973 Nuclear Alert,” UPI, September 16, 2002; Elbridge Colby, Avner Cohen, William McCants, Bradley Morris, and William Rosenau, The Israeli “Nuclear Alert” of 1973: Deterrence and Signaling in Crisis, CAN Analysis and Solutions, April 2013; Abraham Rabinovich, The Yom Kippur War: The Epic Encounter That Transformed the Middle East (New York, 2017), 534–56.
22. William A. Schwartz and Charles Derber, The Nuclear Seduction: Why the Arms Race Doesn’t Matter—and What Does (Berkeley, Los Angeles. and Oxford, 1989), 109–17.
23. Pry, Israel’s Nuclear Arsenal, 1–2, 30–33; “Israel’s Nuclear Weapon Capability: An Overview.” Chapter 21: MAD Men 1. “Dr. Strangelove Or: How I Learned To Stop Worrying And Love The Bomb (1964),” Filmsite Movie Review; “Doomsday Machine,” in Ace G. Pilkington, Science Fiction and Futurism: Their Terms and Ideas (Jefferson, NC, 2017), 66–70.
2. Louis Menand, “Fat Man. Herman Kahn and the Nuclear Age,” New Yorker, June 19, 2005; Daniel Deudney, Whole Earth Security: A Geopolitics of Peace, Worldwatch Paper 55 (Washington, DC, 1983), 80.
3. James Nissenbaum, “John von Neumann: The Mathematician Who You May Not Realize Changed Your World,” Thomas Insights, March 15, 2019.
4. Gerard J. DeGroot, The Bomb: A Life (Cambridge, MA, 2005), 270, 297; cf. McNamara interview in “Cold War MAD, 1960–1972,” CNN Documentary Series.
5. Joseph Cirincione, Bomb Scare: The History and Future of Nuclear Weapons (New York, 2008), 36; Warner R. Schilling, “US Strategic Nuclear Concepts in the 1970s: The Search for Sufficiently Equivalent Countervailing Parity,” in Strategy and Nuclear Deterrence, ed. Steven E. Miller (Princeton, NJ, 1984), 183–214, here 184.
6. DeGroot, The Bomb, 270.
7. John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York, 2007), 156–88; Jonathan Haslam, Russia’s Cold War: From the October Revolution to the Fall of the Wall (New Haven and London. 2011), 214–94.
8. “Paper prepared in the Department of Defense,” undated, Washington, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, vol.
32, SALT I, 1969–1972 (Washington, DC, 2010), 3; “Memorandum from K. Wayne Smith of the National Security Council Staff to the President’s Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger),” Washington, October 6, 1971, ibid., 618; DeGroot, The Bomb, 271.
9. “A Brief History of Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems,” Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum.
10. David Reynolds, Summits: Six Meetings that Shaped the Twentieth Century (New York, 2007), 233–36, 246–50.
11. Memorandum of Conversation. Participants: Leonid I. Brezhnev, General-Secretary of Central Committee of CPSU . . . and Mr. Henry A.
Kissinger . . . , Moscow, April 22, 1972, in Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, vol. 32, SALT I, 1969–1972, 775–77. 12. Reynolds, Summits, 247–61; Iu. Latysh, “Petro Shelest, Volodymyr Shcherbyts'kyi i Richard Nikson: Amerykans'kyi slid u vidstavtsi pershoho sekretaria TsK Kompartiï Ukraïny,” Visnyk Kyïvs’koho natsional'noho universytetu im. Tarasa Shevchenka. Istoriia, 1 (144)/2020, 34–36.
13. Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (New York, 1995), 253–54; Memorandum of Conversation. Participants: Leonid I. Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU . . . and the President, Dr. Henry A.
Kissinger, Moscow, May 23, 1972, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969–1976, vol. 32, SALT I, 1969–1972, 851.
14. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 251–52; Reynolds, Summits, 264–72; Gaddis, Cold War, 203–4.
15. Reynolds, Summits, 274; Gaddis, Cold War, 199–200.
16. Reynolds, Summits, 276–81.
17. Military Implications of the Treaty on the Limitations of the Anti-Ballistic Missile Systems and the Interim Agreement on Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. Hearing before the Committee on Armed Services, United States Senate, 92nd Congress, 1st Session (Washington, DC, 1972).
18. “Vstrecha Leonida Brezhneva i prezidenta SShA Dzheral'da Forda (1974),” RIA Novosti; Dobrynin, In Confidence, 327–34. 19. Richard Rhodes, Arsenals of Folly: The Making of the Nuclear Arms Race (New York, 2007), 118–37.
20. The Diary of Anatoly S. Chernyaev 1976.
21. The SALT II Treaty. Hearings before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, 96th Congress, 1st Session (Washington, DC, 1979).
22. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 422–27; Gaddis, Cold War, 200–203.
Chapter 22: Smiling Buddha 1. “Richard Nixon Discusses Energy Policy,” September 26, 1971, Richard Nixon Foundation, www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRCib2l6TuY.
2. Richard Nixon, “Special Message to the Congress on Energy Policy, April 18, 1973,” in Public Papers of the Presidents of the United States (Washington, DC, 1975), 310; Rod Adams, “Why did Richard Nixon so strongly endorse nuclear energy in April 1973?” Atomic Insights, September 22, 2015.
3. “Environment: Project Dubious,” Time, April 9, 1973.
4. Michael Corbett, “Oil Shock of 1973–74 (October 1973–January 1974),” Federal Reserve History; David Hammes and Douglas T. Wills, “Black Gold: The End of Bretton Woods and the Oil Price Shocks of the 1970s,” Independent Review 9, no. 4 (Spring 2005): 501–11; Luke Phillips, “Nixon’s Nuclear Energy Vision,” October 20, 2016, Richard Nixon Foundation.
5. James Mahaffey, Nuclear Awakening: A New Look at the History and Future of Nuclear Power (New York, 2010), 300–326; John Abbotts, “The Long, Slow Death of the Fast Flux Facility,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, September 1, 2004.
6. Mahaffey, Atomic Awakening, 232–37; Scott Kirsch, Proving Grounds: Project Plowshare and the Unrealized Dream of Nuclear Earthmoving (New Brunswick, NJ, and London, 2005); Milo D. Nordyke, “The Soviet program for peaceful uses of nuclear explosions,” Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, July 24, 1996; Valentina Semiashkina, “Atomnyi kotlovan,” Ėkologiia i pravo, December 24, 2002.
7. William Burr, “The Nixon Administration and the Indian Nuclear Program, 1972–1974,” Nuclear Proliferation International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.
8. George Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation (Berkeley and Los Angeles, 2001), 14; Raj Chengappa, Weapons of Peace: The Secret Story of India’s Quest To Be a Nuclear Power (New Delhi, 2000), 66–71.
9. William George Penney, “Homi Jehangir Bhabha, 1909–1966,” Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, 13 (1967): 35–55; Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, 16–21.
10. Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, 22–26; “Indian Nuclear Program,” Atomic Heritage Foundation.
11. Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, 27–28; “India’s Nuclear Weapons Program. The Beginning: 1944–1960,” Nuclear Weapon Archive; Manpreet Sethi, “The Indo-Canadian Nuclear Relationship: Possibilities and Challenges,” International Journal 69, no. 1 (March 2014): 35– 47, here 36–37. 12. Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, 28–40; “Plutonium Processing Plant,” India Facilities, Nuclear Threat Initiative.
13. Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, 44–47.
14. Perkovich, India’s Nuclear Bomb, 64–85.
15. Chengappa, Weapons of Peace, 103–13.
16. Chengappa, Weapons of Peace, 111–12, 116–30; “India’s Nuclear Weapons Program. Smiling Buddha: 1974,” Nuclear Weapon Archive.
17. “US Embassy Airgram A-20 to State Department, ‘India’s Nuclear Intentions,’ ” January 21, 1972, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, National Archives, Record Group 59, SN 70-73, Def 18-8 India.
Obtained and contributed by William Burr and included in NPIHP Research Update #4.
18. Chengappa, Weapons of Peace, 114–15; “India’s Nuclear Weapons Program. Smiling Buddha: 1974.” 19. “Intelligence Community Staff, Post Mortem Report, ‘An Examination of the Intelligence Community’s Performance Before the Indian Nuclear Test of May 1974,’ ” July 1974, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Mandatory declassification review request; release by the Interagency Security Classification Appeals Panel. Obtained and contributed by William Burr and included in NPIHP Research Update #4.
20. “US Embassy India Cable 6598 to State Department, ‘India’s Nuclear Explosion: Why Now?,’ ” May 18, 1974, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Access to Archival Databases (AAD), National Archives and Records Administration, Record Group 59, Central Foreign Policy File, document number 1974NEWDE06598. Obtained and contributed by William Burr and included in NPIHP Research Update #4; “India’s Nuclear Weapons Program.
Smiling Buddha: 1974.” 21. “Intelligence Community Staff, Post Mortem Report, ‘An Examination of the Intelligence Community’s Performance Before the Indian Nuclear Test of May 1974.’ ” 22. “National Security Study Memorandum (NSSM) 202 on Nuclear Proliferation,” May 23, 1974, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Nixon Presidential Library, National Security Council Institutional Files, Study Memorandums (1969–1974), Box H-205. Obtained by Fundação Getúlio Vargas; Henry D. Sokolski, Best of Intentions: America’s Campaign against Strategic Weapons Proliferation (Westport, CT, and London, 2001), 63–65. 23. David Fischer, History of the International Atomic Energy Agency (Vienna, 1997), 262–63.
24. Carey Sublette, “Pakistan’s Nuclear Weapons Program. The Beginning,” Nuclear Weapon Archive; Samina Ahmed and David Cortright, “Pakistani Public Opinion and Nuclear Weapons Policy,” in Ahmed and Cortright, eds., Pakistan and the Bomb: Public Opinion and Nuclear Options (Notre Dame, IN, 1998), 3–46, here 9–10.
25. William Burr, “U.S. and British Combined to Delay Pakistani Nuclear Weapons Program in 1978–1981, Declassified Documents Show,” Nuclear Proliferation International History Project, Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars; “US Embassy Paris cable 31540 to State Department, ‘Elysée Views on Reprocessing Issues,’ ” September 23, 1978, History and Public Policy Program Digital Archive, Mandatory Declassification Review request. Obtained and contributed by William Burr and included in NPIHP Research Update #3; Shubhangi Pandey, U.S. Sanctions on Pakistan and Their Failure as Strategic Deterrent, Observer Research Foundation Issue Brief 251 (August 2018). Chapter 23: Star Wars 1. Frank Warner, “New World Order Seventeen Years Ago,” The Morning Call, March 5, 2000.
2. James Cant, “The SS-20 Missile—Why Were You Pointing at Me?” in Russia: War, Peace and Diplomacy, ed. Ljubica Erickson and Mark Erickson (London, 2007), 240–53; Taylor Downing, 1983: Reagan, Andropov and a World on the Brink (New York, 2018), 78–79.
3. Christopher Paine, “Pershing II: The Army’s Strategic Weapon,” Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists 36, no. 8 (October 1980): 25–31.
4. Joshua Woodyatt, “War Scares and (Nearly) the End of the World: The Euromissiles Crisis of 1977–1987,” E-International Relations, May 2, 2020; John T. Correll, “The Euromissile Showdown,” Air Force Magazine, February 1, 2020; Peter E. Quint, “Civil Disobedience and the German Courts: The Pershing Missile Protests in Comparative Perspective,” Book Gallery, 34 (2008).
5. Ronald Reagan, Speech on the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks, November 18, 1981, Miller Center; “Bonn Stands by ‘Zero Option,’ ” New York Times, January 30, 1983, A 3; “Brezhnev’s Condemnation of NATO’s Plans,” October 6, 1979, in The Cold War Through Documents: A Global History, ed. Edward H. Judge and John W. Langdon, 3rd ed.
(Lanham, MD, Boulder, New York, and London, 2018), 287; Ronald Reagan, “Speech on the Strategic Arms Reduction Talks,” November 18, 1981.
6. “Andropov’s Speech on Reduction in Nuclear Missiles, 21 December 1982,” in The Cold War Through Documents, 310–11.
7. Martin S. Katz, Ban the Bomb: A History of SANE, the Committee for Sane Nuclear Policy (Westport, CT, 1987), 149–52; Warner, “New World Order Seventeen Years Ago.” 8. Ronald Reagan, “Evil Empire” Speech, March 8, 1983, Miller Center; “Evil Empire” Speech by President Reagan—Address to the National Association of Evangelicals, YouTube.
9. Warner, “New World Order Seventeen Years Ago.” 10. Ronald Reagan, “Address to the Nation on National Security,” March 23, 1983, Miller Center; Steven R. Weisman, “Reagan Proposes U.S. Seek New Way to Block Missiles,” New York Times, March 24, 1983, A 1.
11. Reagan, “Address to the Nation on National Security,” March 23, 1983.
12. Reagan, “Address to the Nation on National Security,” March 23, 1983; Andrew Glass, “President Reagan calls for launching ‘Star Wars’ initiative, March 23, 1983,” Politico, March 23, 2017; George P. Shultz, Turmoil and Triumph: My Years as Secretary of State (New York,1993), 26; Donald R. Baucom, The Origins of SDI, 1944–1983 (Lawrence, KS, 1992), 132–33, 153; Frances FitzGerald, Way Out There in the Blue: Reagan, Star Wars and the End of the Cold War (New York, 2000), 127–35, 145–46.
13. Edward Teller with Judith Shoolery, Memoirs: A Twentieth-Century Journey in Science and Politics (New York, 2001), 530–32; Reagan, “Address to the Nation on National Security,” March 23, 1983; Taylor Downing, 1983: Reagan, Andropov, and a World on the Brink (New York, 2018), 90–105.
14. Sharon Watkins Lang, “Where do we get ‘Star Wars’?” The Eagle, March 2007; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (New York, 1995), 528.
15. “Otvety Iuriia Vladimirovicha Andropova na voprosy korrespondenta ‘Pravdy,’ ” Pravda, March 27, 1983, 1.
16. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 532.
17. “KGB Chairman Andropov to KGB Members,” March 25, 1981, National Security Archive; Chairman Yuri Andropov at the National Consultation Meetings of the Leadership and Members of the KGB, May 25, 1981, National Security Archive. 18. KGB Headquarters, Moscow to the London KGB Residency, February 17, 1983; Christopher Andrew and Vasily Mitrokhin, The Sword and the Shield: The Mitrokhin Archive and the Secret History of the KGB (New York, 2000), 392–93; Downing, 1983: Reagan, Andropov, and a World on the Brink, 68–89.
19. Benjamin B. Fischer, A Cold War Conundrum: The 1983 Soviet War Scare; Downing, 1983: Reagan, Andropov and the World on the Brink, 149–68.
20. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 537–38; Ronald Reagan, “Speech on the Soviet Attack on a Korean Airliner,” September 5, 1983; Artem Krechetnikov, “Tragediia koreiskogo Boinga: chto bylo na samom dele?,” August 21, 2013, BBC Russian Service.
21. Pavel Aksenov, “Stanislav Petrov: The man who may have saved the world,” BBC Russian Service, September 26, 2013; “Obituary: Stanislav Petrov was declared to have died on September 18th,” Economist, September 30, 2017.
22. “Zaiavlenie general'nogo sekretaria TsK KPSS, Predsedatelia Verkhovnogo Soveta SSSR Iu. V.
Andropova,” Pravda, September 29, 1983, 1; Andrei Gromyko, Memories (London, 1989), 384–86; Anatoly Dobrynin, In Confidence: Moscow’s Ambassador to America’s Six Cold War Presidents (New York, 1995), 540.
23. “Segodnia den' raketnykh voisk i artillerii,” Pravda, November 19, 1983, 1; Dmitrii Ustinov, “Borot'sia za mir, ukrepliat' oboronosposobnost',” Pravda, November 19, 1983, 4. Chapter 24: The Fall of the Nuclear Colossus 1. Ronald Reagan, White House Diaries, October 10, 1983, in Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Institute; Reagan, White House Diaries, November 18, 1983, ibid. Alistair Cooke, “The Day After—25 November 1983,” BBC Radio 4.
2. Christopher Andrew and Oleg Gordievsky, KGB: The Inside Story of Its Foreign Operations from Lenin to Gorbachev (London, 1990), 502–4; Ronald Reagan, An American Life: The Autobiography (New York, 2011), 585, 588–89; Steven F. Hayward, The Age of Reagan: The Conservative Counterrevolution, 1980–1989 (New York, 2010), 331–32; Downing, 1983: Reagan, Andropov and the World on the Brink (New York, 2018), 118–127. 3. Ronald Reagan, “Address to the Nation and Other Countries on United States-Soviet Relations,” January 16, 1984, Ronald Reagan Presidential Library and Museum.
4. Mikhail Gorbachev interviewed for the CNN Cold War Mini-Series, Episode 22: Star Wars, min. 27:29, YouTube; Ronald Reagan, White House Diaries, November 5, 1985, in Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Institute.
5. David Reynolds, Summits: Six Meetings That Shaped the Twentieth Century (New York, 2007), 370–75.
6. Reynolds, Summits, 358, 379–80; An American participant in the Geneva summit interviewed for the CNN Cold War Mini-Series, Episode 22: Star Wars, min. 28:04.
7. V Politbiuro TsK KPSS. Po zapisiam Anatoliia Cherniaeva, Vadima Medvedeva, Georgiia Shakhnazarova (1985–1991) (Moscow, 2006), 43, 78.
8. Mark Harrison, “Soviet Economic Growth Since 1928: The Alternative Statistics of G. I.
Khanin,” Europe-Asia Studies 45, no. 1 (1993): 141–67; V Politbiuro, 102–3; Vladislav Zubok, A Failed Empire: The Soviet Union in the Cold War from Stalin to Gorbachev (Chapel Hill, NC, 2007), 291, 299.
9. V Politbiuro, 35, 39.
10. Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2018).
11. V Politbiuro, 43; Zubok, A Failed Empire, 288.
12. Reynolds, Summits, 389–90.
13. V Politbiuro, 88–89.
14. Dobrynin, In Confidence, 623–24; V Politbiuro, 168.
15. V Politbiuro, 162, 182.
16. Mikhail Gorbachev, Perestroika: New Thinking for Our Country and the World (New York, 1987), 12, 234.
17. “Treaty Between the United States of America and the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics on the Elimination of Their Intermediate-Range and Shorter-Range Missiles (INF Treaty),” U.S.
Department of State; SIPRI Yearbook 2007: Armaments, Disarmament, and International Security, Stockholm International Peace Research Institute (Stockholm, 2007), 683; Reynolds, Summits, 394–95. 18. Ronald Reagan, White House Diaries, December 8, 1987, in Ronald Reagan Presidential Foundation and Institute; Reagan, White House Diaries, December 9, 1987, ibid.; Reynolds, Summits, 396.
19. Odd Arne Westad, The Cold War: A World History (New York, 2017), 579–608.
20. START I at a Glance, Strategic Arms Association.
21. Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2015), 15; Dobrynin, In Confidence, 627.
22. “Otstavka Gorbacheva. Zaiavlenie,” December 25, 1991, YouTube; Plokhy, The Last Empire, 376–77. Chapter 25: Giving Up the Bomb 1.
“Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START II),” Federation of American Scientists; “Brief Chronology of START II,” Arms Control Association.
2. On Brazil and Argentina giving up their nuclear programs, see Matias Spektor, “The Long View: How Argentina and Brazil Stepped Back from a Nuclear Race,” Americas Quarterly, October 28, 2015.
3. Zondi Masiza, “A Chronology of South Africa’s Nuclear Program,” The Nonproliferation Review (Fall 1993): 35–55; “Nuclear Power in South Africa,” World Nuclear Association; “South Africa. Nuclear,” Nuclear Threat Initiative.
4. Roger Jardine W. De-Villiers and Mitchell Reiss, “Why South Africa Gave Up the Bomb,” Foreign Affairs 72 (November/December 1993): 98–101.
5. Leonard Thompson, A History of South Africa, 3rd ed. (New Haven and London, 2001), 187– 219; “Mandela and South African Communist Party,” South African History Online.
6. “South Africa withdraws from the Commonwealth, 15 March 1961,” South African History Online; Richard Dale, The Namibian War of Independence, 1966–1989: Diplomatic, Economic and Military Campaigns (Jefferson, NC, 2014), 74–77, 93–95.
7. “South Africa. Missile,” Nuclear Threat Initiative.
8. De-Villiers and Reiss, “Why South Africa Gave Up the Bomb,” 102; “South Africa. Nuclear,” Nuclear Threat Initiative; Sasha Polakow-Suransky, The Unspoken Alliance: Israel’s Secret Relationship with Apartheid South Africa (New York, 2010), 118–53.
9. “South Africa. Nuclear,” Nuclear Threat Initiative; De-Villiers and Reiss, “Why South Africa Gave Up the Bomb,” 103–4; Kathryn O’Neill and Barry Munslow, “Ending the Cold War in Southern Africa,” Third World Quarterly 12, no. 3/4 (1990–1991): 81–96.
10. Serhii Plokhy, The Last Empire: The Final Days of the Soviet Union (New York, 2015), 199– 200.
11. Telcon of President George H. W. Bush with President Yeltsin of the Republic of Russia, December 8, 1991, 1, George H. W. Bush Presidential Library and Museum.
12. Mariana Budjeryn, “Looking Back: Ukraine’s Nuclear Predicament and the Nonproliferation Regime,” Arms Control Association; Budjeryn, Inheriting the Bomb: The Collapse of the USSR and the Nuclear Disarmament of Ukraine (Baltimore, 2023), 62–83; “The Lisbon Protocol at a Glance,” Arms Control Association.
13. Steven Pifer, The Eagle and the Trident: U.S–Ukraine Relations in Turbulent Times (Washington, DC, 2017), 4–5; Mariana Budjeryn, Inheriting the Bomb, 34–36; Yuri Kostenko, Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament: A History (Cambridge, MA, 2020), 34; “End of the Soviet Union. Text of Bush’s Address to Nation on Gorbachev’s Resignation,” New York Times, December 26, 1991, A 16; George H. W. Bush, Address on Gorbachev Resignation, December 25, 1991, C-SPAN; “Ukraine, Nuclear Weapons, and Security Assurances at a Glance,” Arms Control Association.
14. “Deklaratsiia pro derzhavnyi suvernitet Ukraïny,” Verkhovna Rada Ukraïny.
15. Budjeryn, “Looking Back: Ukraine’s Nuclear Predicament and the Nonproliferation Regime.” 16. “Zaiava pro bez’iadernyi status Ukraïny,” Verkhovna Rada Ukraïny; Kostenko, Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament, 41.
17. Sergei Shargorodsky, “Ukraine Suspends Removal of Tactical Nuclear Weapons With AMSoviet-Unrest,” Associated Press, March 12, 1992; Pifer, The Eagle and the Trident, 11; Kostenko, Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament, 35, 39, 45–46; Serge Schmemann, “Ukrainian Uses Summit to Berate Russians and the Commonwealth: Animosity clouds the meeting of the exSoviet republics,” New York Times, March 21, 1992, 1.
18. Kostenko, Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament, 64–68. 19. “Postanova Verkhovnoï Rady Ukraïny Pro dodatkovi zakhody shchodo zabezpechennia nabuttia Ukraïnoiu bez’iadernoho statusu,” Verkhovna Rada Ukraïny; Pifer, The Eagle and the Trident, 11.
20. Strobe Talbott, The Russia Hand: A Memoir of Presidential Diplomacy (New York, 2002), 79; John J. Mearsheimer, “The Case for a Ukrainian Nuclear Deterrent,” Foreign Affairs 72, no. 3 (Summer, 1993): 50–66.
21. Kostenko, Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament, 230–33.
22. Jane Perlez, “Economic Collapse Leaves Ukraine with Little to Trade but Its Weapons,” New York Times, January 13, 1994; Serhii Plokhy, The Gates of Europe: A History of Ukraine (New York, 2016), 328–29; “Ukraine Inflation Rate 1993–2021,” Macrotrends.
23. Serhii Plokhy, Chernobyl: The History of a Nuclear Catastrophe (New York, 2018), 329–30.
24. Budapest Memorandums on Security Assurances, 1994, Council on Foreign Relations.
25. Budjeryn, “Looking Back: Ukraine’s Nuclear Predicament and the Nonproliferation Regime”; “Nuclear Disarmament. Ukraine,” Nuclear Threat Initiative; “Tretia pislia Rosiï ta SShA. Iak vyhliadav iadernyi potentsial Ukraïny,” YouTube.
26. Paul J. D’Anieri, Introduction, in Kostenko, Ukraine’s Nuclear Disarmament, 9–22; Scott D.
Sagan, “Why Do States Build Nuclear Weapons?: Three Models in Search of a Bomb,” International Security 21, no. 3 (Winter 1996–1997): 54–86, here 80–82.
27. “Central and Eastern European Nuclear-Weapon-Free Zone,” Federation of American Scientists. Chapter 26: The Return of Fear 1.
“Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty,” Nuclear Threat Initiative.
2. Michael Krepon, “Looking Back: The 1998 Indian and Pakistani Nuclear Tests,” Arms Control Association.
3. Official Press Statements, Ministry of External Affairs of India, New Delhi, May 11, 1998; www.wisconsinproject.org/india-pakistan-nuclear-weapon-update-1998/.
4. Molly MacCalman, “A.Q. Khan Nuclear Smuggling Network,” Journal of Strategic Security 9, no. 1 (Spring 2016); David Armstrong and Joseph John Trento, America and the Islamic Bomb: The Deadly Compromise (Hanover, NH, 2007). “Pakistan Nuclear Weapons. A Brief History of Pakistan’s Nuclear Program,” Strategic Security Project; Pakistan and the Bomb: Public Opinion and Nuclear Options, ed.
Samina Ahmed and David Cortright (Notre Dame, IN, 1998), 3–46, here 10–12.
5. “Pakistan Nuclear Weapons”; “India-Pakistan: Nuclear Weapon Update—1998,” November 1, 1998, Wisconsin Project on Nuclear Arms Control.
6. “India and Pakistan on the Brink: The 1998 Nuclear Tests,” Association for Diplomatic Study and Training; Fact Sheet: India and Pakistan Sanctions. Released by the Bureau of Economic and Agricultural Affairs, June 18, 1998, US Department of State; Nuclear Sanctions: Section 102(b) of the Arms Export Control Act and Its Application to India and Pakistan, December 9, 1999–October 5, 2000, Congressional Research Service Report.
7. Deok Ryong Yoon and Bradley O. Babson, “Understanding North Korea’s Economic Crisis,” Asian Economic Papers 1, no. 3 (July 2002): 69–89.
8. Lee Jae-Bong, “U.S. Deployment of Nuclear Weapons in 1950s South Korea & North Korea’s Nuclear Development: Toward Denuclearization of the Korean Peninsula,” Asia-Pacific Journal 7, issue 8, no. 3 (February 17, 2009).
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